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Memory retrieval has been considered as requisite to initiate memory reconsolidation; however, some studies indicate that blocking retrieval does not prevent memory from undergoing reconsolidation. Since N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) glutamate receptors in the perirhinal cortex have been involved in object recognition memory formation, the present study evaluated whether retrieval and reconsolidation are independent processes by manipulating these glutamate receptors. The results showed that AMPA receptor antagonist infusions in the perirhinal cortex blocked retrieval, but did not affect memory reconsolidation, although NMDA receptor antagonist infusions disrupted reconsolidation even if retrieval was blocked. Importantly, neither of these antagonists disrupted short-term memory. These data suggest that memory underwent reconsolidation even in the absence of retrieval.

This article sought to identify factors related to high school completion rates and college enrollment among Hispanic students. Hispanic students were found to have high attrition rates in institutions of higher education. Implications for the development and implementation of retention programs for Hispanic high school students, such as culturally sensitive professional staff and faculty training, increased parent or family involvement, and improved parent or caregiver service provider communication in the development of programs aimed at the retention of Hispanic students, are presented. (Contains 2 figures and 2 tables.)

This article offers suggestions for achieving the internationalization of university mathematics-related curricular offerings. It presents learning objectives and related student outcomes, raises general issues related to internationalization, and then discusses how to incorporate the objectives and address these issues within the university mathematics curriculum. Specific recommendations include developing a new course, Cultural Aspects of Mathematics, to be team taught by the Departments of Mathematics and Sociology/Anthropology; creating a new Mathematical Modeling course within the mathematics major that includes solving problems from an international perspective; revising the existing Math History course to include more non-Western content; devoting approximately one quarter of the Mathematics Capstone Course to an examination of international and cultural issues; and working to increase the number of mathematics majors who take advantage of study abroad opportunities.

Reconsolidation has been described as a process where a consolidated memory returns to a labile state when retrieved. Growing evidence suggests that reconsolidation is, in fact, a destabilization/stabilization process that incorporates updated information to a previously consolidated memory. We used the conditioned taste aversion (CTA) task in order to test this theory. On the first trial, the conditioned stimulus (CS) (saccharin) was associated to the unconditioned stimulus (US) (LiCl injection), and as a result, aversion to saccharin was obtained. The following day, animals were injected with anisomycin in either the insular cortex (IC), central amygdala (CeA), basolateral amygdala (BLA), or simultaneously in IC and CeA or IC and BLA, and a second CTA trial was carried out in which updated information was acquired. Animals were tested 24 h later. When protein synthesis was inhibited in either the IC or CeA, consolidation was affected and previously consolidated memory was unimpaired. However, when both the IC and CeA were simultaneously anisomycin injected, the previously consolidated memory was affected. After repeated association trials, protein synthesis inhibition in the IC and CeA did not have an effect on taste memory. These results suggest that the IC and the CeA are necessary for taste-aversion consolidation, and that both share the previously consolidated memory trace. In addition, our data demonstrated that protein synthesis in either the IC or the CeA suffices to stabilize previously consolidated taste memory when destabilized by incorporation of updated information.

These experiments investigated the involvement of several temporal lobe regions in consolidation of recognition memory. Anisomycin, a protein synthesis inhibitor, was infused into the hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, insular cortex, or basolateral amygdala of rats immediately after the sample phase of object or object-in-context recognition memory training. Anisomycin infused into perirhinal or insular cortices blocked long-term (24 h), but not short-term (90 min) object recognition memory. Infusions into the hippocampus or amygdala did not impair object recognition memory. Anisomycin infused into the hippocampus blocked long-term, but not short-term object-in-context recognition memory, whereas infusions administered into the perirhinal cortex, insular cortex, or amygdala did not affect object-in-context recognition memory. These results clearly indicate that distinct regions of the temporal lobe are differentially involved in long-term object and object-in-context recognition memory. Whereas perirhinal and insular cortices are required for consolidation of familiar objects, the hippocampus is necessary for consolidation of contextual information of recognition memory. Altogether, these results suggest that temporal lobe structures are differentially involved in recognition memory consolidation.

Consolidation theory proposes that through the synthesis of new proteins recently acquired memories are strengthened over time into a stable long-term memory trace. However, evidence has accumulated suggesting that retrieved memory is susceptible to disruption, seeming to consolidate again (reconsolidate) to be retained in long-term storage. Here we show that intracortical blockade of protein synthesis in the gustatory cortex after retrieval of taste-recognition memory disrupts previously consolidated memory to a restricted degree only if the experience is updated. Our results suggest that retrieved memory can be modified as part of a mechanism for incorporating updated information into previously consolidated memory. (Contains 3 figures.)

The relevance of perirhinal cortical cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission for taste recognition memory and learned taste aversion was assessed by microinfusions of muscarinic (scopolamine), NMDA (AP-5), and AMPA (NBQX) receptor antagonists. Infusions of scopolamine, but not AP5 or NBQX, prevented the consolidation of taste recognition memory using attenuation of neophobia as an index. In addition, learned taste aversion in both short- and long-term memory tests was exclusively impaired by scopolamine. These data provide neurochemical support for the theory that cholinergic activity of the perirhinal cortex participates in the formation of the taste memory trace and that it is independent of the NMDA and AMPA receptor activity. These results support the idea that cholinergic neurotransmission in the perirhinal cortex is also essential for acquisition and consolidation of taste recognition memory. (Contains 4 figures.)

Discusses the following: barriers to geriatrics education, teaching strategies (such as communication with patients, acceptance of one's own aging, interdisciplinary teamwork), and curriculum design for undergraduate and graduate study. (Contains 26 references.) (SK)