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A call for educational reform motivated this school system to devise an enhanced version of STEM in their middle school. This case provides rich descriptions of how eighth grade middle school teachers, from multiple disciplines, enacted a STEAM team model that integrated Language Arts into STEM. These STEAM team teachers were systematically studied during field observations of 100+ class sessions using what they referred to as "transdisciplinary co-teaching," flexible scheduling, and multiple types of physical spaces to further engage students. Different dimensions of co-teaching were observed. The most frequently observed was "reconstructed," followed by "predisciplinary," "correlated," and "shared." Types of instruction other than "reconstructed," did not fit the school's proposed definitions of "transdisciplinary co-teaching." Thoughts are shared on lessons learned.

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) applications that support student learning have gained increasing interest. However, empirical studies exploring the educational potential of using IVR in primary school science classrooms are lacking. Objectives: This study developed a series of IVR science lessons for primary school students and examined the effects of these lessons on learning outcomes. Methods: Our mixed-method approach employed pre- and post-tests to measure academic achievement, questionnaires to measure motivation and cognitive load, and semi-structured interviews to further explore students' feelings and attitudes about IVR science lessons. Participants included 362 Grade 4 students assigned to either the experimental (IVR-based classroom) or control (traditional classroom) groups. The experimental group engaged in IVR science lessons using Head-Mounted Displays; the control group learned the same material through traditional methods. Results and conclusions: The results showed that the IVR-based classroom significantly improved primary students' academic achievement and science motivation and decreased their cognitive load. Moreover, the experimental group reported positive experiences with the IVR science lessons. Takeaways: These findings help unpack the relationships between IVR and academic achievement, science motivation, and cognitive load in primary school science lessons, thus providing insight on integrating IVR into existing classrooms.

This study focused on student-content interactions and engagement in an online graduate course. Student descriptions of their experiences and learning processes in relation to digital course resources were examined to understand how and why resources were used. Fourteen students provided detailed explanations of their use and perceived value of resources in gaining content knowledge. Results were mapped by whole group to examine patterns of behavior in use of course e-text, video tutorials, and self-check quizzes. Interactions with course e-text and video tutorials -- reported as the primary sources for learning content -- were also mapped on an individual level. Student explanations were then examined through the lens of Generative Learning Theory to further describe students process for learning content. Continued study of connections between learning resources and student-content interaction and engagement may inform effective and efficient design of online educational experiences.

This study investigated the case-based method (CBM) instructional-design theory and its application in designing self-directed online instruction. The purpose of this study was to validate and refine the theory for a self-directed online instruction context. Guided by formative research methodology, this study first developed an online tutorial based on 13 design assumptions synthesized from the CBM literature. The researchers then formatively evaluated the online tutorial as a design instance of CBM through two iterations of design, evaluation, and revision. The major findings included: (1) perceived value of various CBM design features, (2) benefits and limitations of applying CBM in the tutorial design, and (3) validation and revision of a set of generic and context-specific CBM design assumptions. These findings extend our understanding of CBM to the context of self-directed online instruction and provide useful insights and practical guidance to inform instructional design practices.

This study investigated how community college students in an online introductory-level language course self-regulated their learning while using digital learning resources. An analysis of reflective journals revealed that learners reported engaging with resources in ways consistent with the six dimensions of self-regulated learning. Only learners who demonstrated higher levels of oral proficiency reported monitoring performance. There were also differences in use of time and methods of learning used by learners at different performance levels. All participants struggled to remain motivated throughout the course. These findings offer evidence that providing scaffolding for monitoring performance, methods of learning, use of time, and motivation may be helpful to online language learners.

Reflective thinking is important to young adolescents as they develop their thinking skills. Various instructional methods have been recommended to support reflective thinking, yet the nature of the underlying factors in these methods is unclear. Exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the factors prompting reflective thinking. Results of this study suggest that young students perceived three clusters of methods as supporting their reflection: reflective learning environments, reflective teaching methods, and reflective scaffolding tools. A one-way within subjects ANOVA showed that the most helpful factor was the reflective learning environment, with the most helpful elements being freedom and collaboration. Students' perceptions of concept mapping and reflective question prompts were found to differ significantly across gender. Recommendations are provided for designing learning environments that prompt reflective thinking.

The First Principles of Instruction (FPI) represent ideologies found in most instructional design theories and models. Few attempts, however, have been made to empirically test the relationship of these FPI to instructional outcomes. This study addresses whether the degree to which FPI are implemented in courses makes a difference to student cognitive engagement, taking into account the mediating role of individual goals. A multilevel meditation model was tested with 1,070 undergraduate students from 29 courses in a Korean university. Findings demonstrated that the influences of course-level implementation of FPI influence cognitive engagement through individual intrinsic goal orientation. Course-level implementation of FP does not directly affect surface strategy use and self-regulated strategy use; rather, the effect of FPI appears to be mediated by intrinsic goal orientations. Course-level implementation of FPI also appears to affect deep cognitive strategy use directly as well as indirectly through intrinsic goal orientation. The present study added novel evidence linking Merrill's First Principles of Instruction to cognitive engagement.

Purpose: The Department of Pediatrics at SUNY Upstate Medical University in collaboration with the Instructional Design, Development, and Evaluation Department in Syracuse University's School of Education recently undertook a curricular reform effort that included translation of the residency program's annual core didactic lecture series to an online format. The present study examines the design factors and pedagogical techniques that enhanced or inhibited the successful implementation of the newly developed online core curriculum. Methods: This study employed a qualitative focus group methodology to identify learner perceptions of the affordances and barriers of the Pediatric Online Core Curriculum for resident education. Four focus group sessions were conducted with a mixture of 1st, 2nd and 3rd year residents participating in the pediatric residency program at SUNY Upstate Medical University. Anonymous transcripts of the interview sessions were independently coded and utilized in the data analysis. Results: Eight major themes emerged that impacted the learning experience of residents utilizing the online curriculum. These themes included; curriculum quality, design, feedback, implementation, media features, integration, time, and learner centered issues. The study analysis concludes with six design principles for online curricula to promote their successful employment and utilization. Conclusions: The potential benefits of online learning systems will not be realized unless appropriate instructional methods are employed in their design and development. The present study examines the perceived affordances and barriers to implementation of online curricula and concludes with principles that can be used to influence the design of future curricula. (Contains 2 figures.)

This study compared instructional methods used and levels of student engagement in treatment (n = 4) and comparison (n = 4) classrooms of 40 or more students for two weeks in Thailand. Observations were conducted in all classrooms pre- and post-intervention. The treatment group received the intervention: a workshop focused on strategies to engage students more deeply in learning activities and in-class instructional coaching support. Analysis of pre- and post-intervention data showed improvements in student engagement in the treatment teachers' classes. Post-observations showed that treatment teachers used a greater variety of instructional methods, student groupings, student activities, and student-centered instructional methods than in pre-observations. (Contains 8 figures and 6 tables.)

Worldwide growth in use of mobile phones has fostered the emergence of mobile learning. Mobile technologies are used both in classrooms to support instruction (safe) and as tools that significantly change instructional activities, learner roles, and learning location (disruptive). Learners become less consumers of information and more collaborators, researchers, and publishers on-the-go (Stead, 2006). Scholarship in m-learning is scarce and lacks rigor (McNeal & van't Hooft, 2006). Even with increasing numbers of investigative studies there are still significant gaps in the literature (Litchfield et al., 2007). Little is understood about when m-technology is most useful and what constitutes good m-learning. A review of a broad range of investigative cases is presented and critiqued with suggestions for further research. Although both classroom-based and distance education topics are discussed, the distance education scholar and practitioner may benefit from learning more about these emerging technologies being used in face-to-face instruction.

Changes in engineering practices have spawned changes in engineering education and prompted the use of distributed learning environments. A distributed collaborative engineering design (CED) course was designed to engage engineering students in learning about and solving engineering design problems. The CED incorporated an advanced interactive discovery environment (AIDE) that engaged students with different tools to support collaborative engineering design tasks. Data suggested the course design fostered engineering content learning, CED problem solving, collaborative technologies knowledge, and development of collaboration skills. Design recommendations included enhancing instruction with technology-supported collaborative activities, better articulating the value of AIDE tools, and advocating development of competencies with such tools. (Contains 5 tables and 3 figures.)

This paper presents research findings related to the "Dynamic Enhanced Evaluation of Problem Solving (DEEP)" (Spector & Koszalka, 2004) methodology for assessing how participants conceptualize ill-defined problems in biology using annotated concept maps. The methodology engages highly experienced (expert) and less experienced (novice) participants in creating annotated problem representations. This exploratory study addressed the lack of assessment methods to assess learning progress and relative level of expertise in complex, dynamic domains. This paper addresses (1) differences between experts and novices, (2) learning in complex domains, and (3) the rational for using annotated concept maps to assess learning in complex domains. Findings suggest that there are similarities in how experts think about ill-defined problems and these similarities are different than novices. These findings thus suggest that this methodology is useful in distinguishing relative levels of expertise in conceptualization of complex and challenging problems in a biology context.

This exploratory study tests the assertion that instructional strategies that match field-dependence status of students are most effective. The study conducted with 12 graduate students registered in a graduate level online course. An online version of the Psychological Differentiation Inventory was used to measure the field-dependence status of students. Students' perceived learning outcomes, their effort and involvement, and level of interaction that they perceived in online course module were measured through an online questionnaire. Results suggested that matches between students' learning styles and instructional strategies did not affect learner perception of their own learning outcomes, level of effort and involvement, and level of interactions in the course. Data also indicated that no single instructional strategy, among three instructional strategies tested, emerged as superior for high and low field-dependent online students.

Reflective-thinking skills are important in problem-based learning environments as they help learners become deeply engaged in learning. The literature suggests several instructional-design factors (e.g., environment, teaching methods, scaffolding tools) that may prompt reflection in learners. However, it is unclear whether these factors differ based on age or developmental stage. The results of this study indicate that middle-school students perceive the "learning environment" factor as more important to prompting their thinking, while college students perceive the "scaffolding methods" factor as more important. While the elements clustered into two factors, most college students disagreed with their helpfulness in prompting reflective thinking, a finding opposite to that obtained for middle-school students. Different patterns were also found between learners' perceptions of the most helpful elements within each factor. Based on these results, suggestions are given for designing developmentally and age-appropriate PBL learning environments that support reflective thinking.

This study investigated relationships among the use of web and human resource during science class and science career interest. Results suggested that levels of science career interest could be predicted based on classroom use of web and human resources. Regular use of human resources was predictive of science career interests for boys and girls. Use of web resources was only predictive of girl's interests, on average, 7 points higher on a 36-point scale than girls who did not use web resources. Girls who used both resources scored 16 points higher than girls who used neither. Two other predictor variables found included (1) teachers who lacked science background and used web resources regularly and (2) level of student-centered instructional strategies used in the classroom. Further research is suggested.

Course developers can be distracted from applying sound instructional design principles by the amount of flexibility offered through online course development resources (Kidney & Puckett, "Quarterly Review of Distance Education," 4 (2003), 203-212). Distance education course management systems (CMS) provide multiple features that can be easily integrated into online instruction. Easy integration does not equal good design, and poor design can impede learning (Kearsley, "A guide to online education" (1997) http://gwis.circ.gwu.edu/~etl/online.html). A taxonomy of the instructional value for CMS features is described. An example of how a course was translated into an online version, initially a failure, and redesigned using this taxonomy is presented. A taxonomy that strategically guides the use of appropriate CMS features to integrate informational, instructional, and learning elements into online courses can support designers in the development of quality of online instruction.

Provides brief definitions of assessment, evaluation, and research and describes strategies for integrating and managing assessment and research activities for a large education technology development project. Provides examples of tools used to develop and manage a comprehensive assessment and research plan in a large technology integration development and research project. (SLD)

Examines the strength of predictive relationships between predisposition factors of middle school students to pursue science careers and student level of science career interest when Web resources were used and not used regularly. Examines perception of self as scientist, perception of other's interest in science, and gender differences in career decision making. (Author/LRW)

Reports on the design and formative assessment of a synchronous distance education demonstration project designed to bring experts to participants at their work locations through Internet technologies. Following evaluation results, a more robust model was designed to increase interactivity before, during, and after the live-broadcast training event. (Author/AEF)

Provides one perspective on the design elements incorporated into the Pennsylvania State University World Campus Educational Technology Integration Certification courses and a brief overview of the authors' experiences facilitating these courses, including their opinions about theoretical and practical implications of different instructional design elements. (MES)

Discussion of the low use of Web resources in K-12 classrooms focuses on a study that tested the hypothesis that teachers who discussed how to use Web resources during computer-mediated communications would have higher attitudes toward the use of Web resources in their classrooms than teachers who did not. (Author/LRW)

Describes an instrument developed to measure teachers' attitudes toward the use of Web resources in the classroom. A factorial analysis revealed an estimated alpha internal consistency score of .90 for a sample of United States teachers, .65 for teachers from Thailand, and an overall estimated alpha internal consistency score of .85. The instrument was shown to have face, content, and construct validity and produce highly reliable data. (Contains 13 references.) (AEF)