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Depression, anxiety, and stress are common mental health problems among adolescents. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have found that students who suffer from mental health problems (e.g., ADHD, anxiety, or depression) tend to manifest school and social problems. It is urgent to identify and intervene early to help children with mental health problems to improve their life outcomes. Unfortunately, research has shown that a significant proportion of children who suffer from behavioral or emotional problems remain unidentified because their symptoms are too mild to be noticed through casual observation by caregivers and teachers. As a result, their symptoms continue to develop gradually and eventually become mental illnesses. When mild to moderate symptoms become a noticeable mental illness, treatment becomes long-term, more invasive, and expensive. Early detection of children who are at risk of behavioral or emotional problems is possible through universal mental health screening in the school setting. The present study focused on the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BESS; Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) to identify students who were at mild risk of mental health problems and to examine their academic trajectories over four years. The findings suggest that students at mild risk of behavioral and emotional problems showed similar academic performance as other students. As a result, students with mild to moderate symptoms can be easily overlooked if academic performance were relied on as an indicator of mental health risk. The current results lend support for conducting universal behavioral and emotional risk screening at schools. A brief screener, applied universally, appears to be an effective solution for identifying students at mild risk of behavioral and emotional problems and acting early to prevent these problems from worsening.

We tested the reliability and construct validity of a Chinese translation of one of the forms of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (3rd Edition)--Self-Report of Personality for adolescent 11- to 21-year olds (BASC-3-SRP-A). The BASC-3-SRP-A yields 16 subscales that form four composite scales. Data were obtained from 444 12- to 14-year olds (Group 1; girls: 59.0%) and 759 15- to 18-year olds (Group 2; girls: 69.2%). For both groups, Cronbach's alphas for most of the 16 subscales were higher than 0.70 and were higher than 0.83 for the four composite scales. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using Mplus 8 on the combined sample yielded support for the construct validity of the Chinese translation of the BASC-3-SRP-A. Findings support the use of BASC-3-SRP-A among Chinese youth.

There is growing evidence that current classification methods are not consistent with current empirical knowledge of childhood psychopathology and the optimal way to classify school-age children remains controversial. The current study investigated three classification methods (categorical, dimensional, person-oriented) for use in predicting school-based outcomes. Children (grades 1-5; N = 558) were administered the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Teacher Rating Scale and results were used to form three classification systems. Educational outcome variables were collected seven months later and the predictive validity of the three classification systems was compared using regression analyses. Findings indicated that all three methods for predicting educational outcomes were modest and were best able to predict later grade point averages. Results indicate the relative superiority of person-oriented and dimensional methods of classification; however these classification methods warrant further investigation. (Contains 6 tables.)

Increasingly, schools are implementing school-based screening for risk of behavioral and emotional problems; hence, foundational evidence supporting the predictive validity of screening instruments is important to assess. This study examined the predictive validity of the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Student Form (BESS Student) in the authentic context of an urban high school that conducted universal screening over 3 years. Multivariate regression, sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic curve analyses were used to examine the BESS Student scores' prediction of internalizing symptoms. BESS Student scores were able to explain a significant proportion of the variance in internalizing symptoms concurrently, but predictive validity estimates decreased over time. Significant gender differences were present; BESS Student scores were better able to predict internalizing symptoms for females. Implications for research and practice involving screening for behavioral and emotional problems are discussed.

Universal screening for complete mental health is proposed as a key step in service delivery reform to move school-based psychological services from the back of the service delivery system to the front, which will increase emphasis on prevention, early intervention, and promotion. A sample of 2,240 high school students participated in a schoolwide universal screening to identify behavioral and emotional distress as well as personal strengths. School psychologists, as part of a multidisciplinary team, coordinated the use of these screening data to engage in preventive consultation with administration to make decisions regarding the refinement and expansion of mental health service delivery options. Schoolwide and individual student prevention and intervention activities were tailored according to screening results. The roles of the school psychologist and multidisciplinary team members are discussed as critical components of this approach to service delivery change. Implications for future consultation research, practice, and training are provided.

This study assesses the ability of a brief screening form, the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System-Student Form (BESS-SF), to predict scores on the much longer form from which it was derived: the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition Self-Report of Personality-Child Form (BASC-2-SRP-C). The present study replicates a former study included in the BESS manual with an entirely new sample. Participants included 252 students from a large, urban, Southwestern U.S. city school district in the third through fifth grades. The sample's ethnic majority was Hispanic (81.7%). Results revealed high specificity and negative predictive values between the screener and omnibus form, suggesting a child who identifies as not "at-risk" on the BESS-SF will likely identify as not "at-risk" on the BASC-2-SRP-C domains. These results effectively replicate the previous findings with a new sample of largely Hispanic (Latino/a) students from a large urban school district.

The present study was the first to examine the psychometric properties of the Korean version of the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2, Self-Report of Personality, College Version (K-BASC-2 SRP-COL), among a Korean national sample. Using 1,000 Korean college students, ages 18 to 25 years, we found support for the reliability (via internal consistency and test--retest correlations) of all subscale and composite scores. The Anxiety, Depression, Somatization, Alcohol Abuse, Inattention, and Hyperactivity subscales of the K-BASC-2 SRP-COL also demonstrated strong convergent validity statistics with criterion measures of related constructs. The present study was also the second study to examine the factor structure of the BASC-2 SRP-COL, and our confirmatory factor analyses revealed good model fit associated with all 16 subscales. Together, these results revealed strong psychometric properties of the K-BASC-2 SRP-COL for use among college students in Korea. We also provided normative data based on this nationally representative sample of 1,000 Korean college students collected from 30 different Korean universities to allow for t score generation to increase the clinical utility and scale score interpretations of this multidimensional measure.

The psychometric properties of the Korean version of the Behavior Assessment System for Children-2, Self-Report of Personality, Child Form (K-BASC-2 SRP-C) are reported. A total of 1100 Korean children ages 8-11 years participated in the study to establish normative data. The results of this study generally supported the factor structure and reliability of the various clinical, adaptive, and composite scale scores of the K-BASC-2 SRP-C. A separate sample of 738 Korean children was used to examine the convergent validity of a subset of the K-BASC-2 SRP-C scales related to anxiety, depression, and attention problems. Results revealed generally strong psychometric properties of the K-BASC-2 SRP-C. The one exception was the Self-Esteem scale: its reliability is low.

A 25 item short form of the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC) Teacher Rating Scale--Preschool (TRS-P) was developed by the BASC authors to serve as an emotional/behavioral indicator for an academic intervention study targeting preschool-aged students. The BASC screener is thought to fulfill a need for an abbreviated behavior rating scale for preschool-aged students that teacher's can complete in a short amount of time. The purpose of the current study is to assess the psychometric properties of the BASC screener. Internal reliability analysis demonstrated remarkably high internal consistency for the screener. Long-term test-retest reliability was found to be acceptable. Furthermore, the construct validity of the screener was investigated using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis methods. Results showed that the screener measures three distinct constructs: Social Skills, Attention/Cognition, and Affect. Evidence of convergent/divergent and discriminant validity is provided. (Contains 4 tables, 1 figure, and 9 notes.)

This study examines similarities and differences in teacher ratings of behavioral problems and adaptive skills between a sample of 320 students from Anguilla, BWI and 315 children from the United States of America using the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992). The study also compared teacher ratings of boys and girls in the Caribbean sample. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) revealed that Anguillian teachers rated their students as having higher mean school problems, while the mean score for adaptive skills was higher for US students. Effect sizes were small, though, indicating that little of the variance in ratings was attributable to cultural group. Boys in the Caribbean sample had significantly higher mean scores on externalizing and school problems. Girls were rated at having more adaptive skills. Again, effect sizes for the differences were small. Scientific and practice implications are offered. (Contains 2 tables and 1 note.)

This study examined the criterion-related validity of score inferences from the "Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Parent Form" (BESS Parent) for the detection of symptoms of prevalent mental health disorders of childhood. The BESS Parent was administered to 99 parents of first- through fifth-grade students, along with the "Child Behavior Checklist" (CBCL). Correlations were computed between the BESS Parent total and researcher-calculated subscale scores, and "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual" ("DSM")-oriented scales of the CBCL. Moderate correlations were obtained between the BESS Parent total score and CBCL "DSM"-oriented conduct problems, oppositional defiant, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and affective problems scales, and with the CBCL externalizing, internalizing, and total problems composite scores. Results support interpreting the BESS Parent as a measure of risk and as an indicator of the potential presence of one of the common mental health disorders of childhood. (Contains 1 table.)

The BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Teacher, Child/Adolescent Form (BESS Teacher Form C/A; Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) is a brief teacher-report rating scale designed to identify students who are at-risk for behavioral and emotional problems. The aim of this study was to describe the latent dimensions that underlie the responses to the BESS Teacher Form C/A. Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) across two random subsets of a nationally representative sample of 2,582 children aged 6 to 12 years suggested that the BESS Teacher Form C/A contains a four-factor latent structure consisting of Externalizing Problems, Internalizing Problems, School Problems, and Adaptive Skills. (Contains 3 tables.)

The overrepresentation of U.S. minority students identified for emotional and behavior disorders special education programs plagues schools and challenges researchers and practitioners. Arcane methods including teacher nomination continue to guide referral processes, despite compelling evidence of their influence on disproportionate special education placement for children of color. As universal screening practices are deployed, emerging evidence suggests that requiring a teacher, parent, or student to complete a rating scale may reduce disproportionality. By using available research to posit that if schools engage in universal screening of behavioral and emotional risk using formal scales, fewer children of color would be placed in special education programs. The logical and evidentiary case for universal screening is made and questions requiring more research are presented.

This study empirically derived a multiple risk factors model of the development of aggression among middle school students in urban, low-income neighborhoods, using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM). Results indicated that aggression increased from sixth to eighth grade. Additionally, the influences of four risk domains (individual, family, community, and media) were tested individually and simultaneously, providing evidence that multiple risk variables at multiple levels influenced the development of aggression with varying degrees. While nearly all risk factors predicted variability in the initial level of aggression, few factors were adequate predictors of changes in aggression. Implications for future research and for evidence-based school interventions are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

The BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BESS) Student Form (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) is a recently developed youth self-report rating scale designed to identify students at risk for behavioral and emotional problems. The BESS Student Form was derived from the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition Self-Report of Personality (BASC-2 SRP; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) using principal component analytic procedures and theoretical considerations. Using 3 samples, the authors conducted exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to understand the underlying factor structure of the BESS Student Form. The results of the EFA suggested that the SRP contained a 4-factor (i.e., Personal Adjustment, Inattention/Hyperactivity, Internalizing, School Problems) emergent structure, which was supported by CFA in 2 additional samples. Practical and research implications are discussed. (Contains 4 figures and 3 tables.)

The problem of valid measurement of psychological constructs remains an impediment to scientific progress, and the measurement of executive functions is not an exception. This study examined the statistical and theoretical derivation of a behavioral screener for the estimation of executive functions in children from the well-established Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). The original national standardization sample of the BASC-Teacher Rating Scales for children ages 6 through 11 was used (N = 2,165). Moderate-to-high internal consistency was obtained within each factor (0.80-0.89). A panel of experts was used for content validity examination. A confirmatory factor analysis model with 25 items loading on 4 latent factors (behavioral control, emotional control, attentional control, and problem solving) was developed, and its statistical properties were examined. The multidimensional model demonstrated adequate fit, and it was deemed invariant after configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance tests across sex and age. Given its strong psychometric properties, with further tests of item validity, this instrument promises future clinical and research utility for the screening of executive functions in school-age children. (Contains 4 figures and 5 tables.)

The purpose of this article was to examine a typology of child behavior using the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, Teacher Rating Scale (BASC TRS-C, 2nd edition; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004). The typology was compared with the solution identified from the 1992 BASC TRS-C norm dataset. Using cluster analysis, a seven-cluster solution was identified and replicated using internal and external validation procedures. Five of the seven clusters were similar to the original solution; however, two new maladaptive behavior clusters emerged. Results also showed that the percentages of students exhibiting problematic behavior increased over time. (Contains 4 tables.)

Gender differences in aggression have typically been based on studies utilizing a mean difference method. From a measurement perspective, this method is inherently problematic unless an aggression measure possesses comparable validity across gender. Stated differently, establishing measurement invariance on the measure of aggression is prerequisite to making any inferences about gender differences. This paper investigated whether aggression functions in the same way across gender using teacher-rated aggression scales from the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). The samples for this study consisted of the BASC standardization samples, including 1,223 children (628 boys, 595 girls) and 788 adolescents (379 boys, 409 girls). The measurement invariance of the BASC aggression scales was examined with both confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT). CFA results showed that there was not enough evidence to support the measurement invariance of the scales across gender at a scale level; IRT results found that only a few items were significantly different across gender. The two methods have similarities and differences in studying measurement invariance, so they can be complementary to each other. The implications of the findings for research and practice in school psychology are discussed. (Contains 6 tables and 2 figures.)

This study examined how the manifestation of overt aggression changes during early adolescence using Hierarchical Linear Modeling. The distinct courses of physical and verbal aggression identified in this study provide support for developmental transformations in overt aggression, which would have been obscured unless aggression had been defined with greater specificity. The examination of gender effects revealed that while boys demonstrate higher initial levels of physical and verbal aggression, there were no gender differences in the growth of physical and verbal aggression. In addition, the testing of ethnicity effects demonstrated that Blacks and Hispanics show higher initial levels of physical and verbal aggression than Whites, however, adolescents from other ethnicities did not differ from Whites in terms of initial aggression levels. Despite the significant differences in initial status, ethnicity did not significantly predict the growth of aggression with the exception that Blacks exhibited a faster rate of decline in physical aggression. The limitations of this study and the implications for future research and practice are discussed. (Contains 3 tables.)

External correlates of a teacher-rated typology of child adjustment developed using the Behavior Assessment System for Children were examined. Participants included 377 elementary school children recruited from 26 classrooms in the southeastern United States. Multivariate analyses of variance and planned comparisons were used to determine whether the teacher-rated behavior subtypes could be differentiated and, if so, to create more complete descriptions of each cluster. Self-perceptions of academic, social, and emotional adjustment as well as peer perceptions of behavioral attributes and social status were found to provide convergent evidence for the typology. Divergent evidence emerged related to internalizing difficulties. Parallels between the teacher-rated typology and peer-relations research were drawn. Most notably, peers rated Mildly Disruptive (MD) children as bullying and disruptive, consistent with teacher report. However, peers also rated MD children as "cool" and with high levels of social dominance and social control, consistent with recent reports of popular bullies. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

The purpose of this study was to document the development of a short behavioral scale that could be used to assess preschoolers' behavior while still retaining adequate scale coverage, reliability, and validity. Factor analysis and item analysis techniques were applied to data from a nationally representative, normative database to create a 23-item behavioral screener to be used to identify children at risk. Screener sum scores were created and correlated with kindergarten and second-grade measures to assess validity evidence. Additionally, a receiver operating curve analysis created a cut score for making decisions about the need for further assessment. Based on the information collected, the 23-item screener was useful for assessing preschool-age students' behavior characteristics.

A principal components analysis of the Teacher Rating Scale-Child (TRS-C) of the Behavior Assessment System for Children was conducted with a cross-sectional cohort of 659 children in Grades 1 to 5. A predictive validity study was then conducted with a 2-year longitudinal sample of 206 children. The results suggested that scores from the resulting 23-item screener had strong initial reliability and validity evidence. Predictive validity coefficients for the screener scores were acceptable for both behavioral and academic outcomes and equal to or better than those for the full TRS-C, comprised of 148 items. The practicality of the screener was documented by teachers' experiences. Administration time was less than 5 minutes per child, and no specialized teacher training was necessary. These results provide preliminary evidence that routine school screening via a brief teacher rating scale can increase the probability that children with behavioral and emotional problems may be validly identified for diagnostic and treatment services. (Contains 4 tables.)

A constructive debate over the classification of child psychopathology can be stimulated by investigating the validity of different classification approaches. We examined and compared the short-term predictive validity of cluster analytic and dimensional classifications of child behavioral adjustment in school using the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC; [Reynolds, C. R., and Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). "Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC)." Circle Pines, MN: AGS.]) Teacher Rating Scales for Children (TRS-C). We cluster analyzed 14 dimensional scores of children's behavior in first grade and identified seven clusters. Then we examined the predictive power of the dimensions and the clusters using a variety of school outcomes in second grade, including academic achievement scores in reading and math, absenteeism, discipline reports, and participation rates in pre-referral intervention. Both methods significantly predicted all school outcomes with similar magnitudes of effect sizes, but the dimensional approach was more powerful in predicting the outcomes except pre-referral intervention. Moreover, coherent group differences in the clusters were identified with respect to the school outcomes. This latter finding may suggest differentiated prognoses of cluster membership. The implications for future validation studies of alternative classification systems of child behavioral adjustment are discussed.

The Individuals with Disabilities Act (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act; IDEIA, 2004) has been reauthorized, and new parameters for defining learning disabilities (LD) have been established that provide more flexibility for corresponding state and local regulations. The field now has a unique opportunity to shape the practice of LD diagnosis and should consider important conceptual, theoretical, empirical, economic, legal, and practical issues related to LD diagnosis. This article highlights five key recommendations for the diagnostic definition of learning disabilities: (1) the definition needs to be unambiguous; (2) it must be universally accepted across professions, researchers, and governmental entities; (3) it must incorporate clearly defined subtypes of learning disabilities; (4) it must be empirically supported; and (5) it must point to valid, reliable, and cost-effective procedures for the identification of children with and without learning disabilities. Consideration of these points may help the field to avoid repeating past mistakes and returning to the folly of poor LD diagnostic practice.

American schoolchildren show tremendous academic as well as intra- and interpersonal behavioral differences in the classroom. Current service delivery models within schools may be insufficient to meet the demand and diversity of students' needs, especially in schools serving students placed at risk by adverse life circumstances, such as poverty. This article presents empirical findings about the range of normal behavioral variability within schools serving students at risk. Our findings suggest that a population-based perspective on behavioral adjustment captured this variability and was useful in predicting children's educational risk status. Our data are best explained by a model associating behavioral risk and educational status that aligns with prevention-oriented service delivery approaches specifying the needs for universal, selected, and indicated interventions in schools. We discuss our findings relative to the needs for schools to afford timely and efficient use of academic supports and mental health resources in schools serving children placed at risk. (Contains 3 tables.)

How a cluster analysis is conducted, validated, and interpreted is illustrated using a 14-scale behavioral assessment instrument and a national sample of 1,228 elementary school students. Method, cluster typology, validity, cluster structure, and prediction of cluster membership are discussed. (Author/SLD)

This study investigated diagnosis of learning problems in 177 boys (ages 6-13) with behavior problems. The standard score discrepancy method and standard score plus low achievement method were more likely to identify children with above-average intelligence quotients as learning disabled, whereas a regression approach identified learning disabilities more consistently across abilities. (Author/JDD)

Education research changed significantly with the passage of the Education Science Reform Act of 2002. That legislation created the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) within the U.S. Department of Education, forever changing research in education broadly writ, including school psychology. The creation of IES served many purposes, from defining education as a scientific discipline to encouraging research designs based on the premise that they make causal inferences more tenable. Something had to change, and IES brought about this shift.

An overview of key features of the Kaufman Assessment Battery (K-ABC) for Children and a history of its development are presented. The discussion covers administration and scoring, standardization, reliability, validity, and educational translation. Some early postpublication research is presented, and conclusions about the possible impact of the K-ABC are drawn. (Author/CL)

Practical considerations associated with local norms development are discussed. A local norming project administering the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised to 398 elementary Mexican--American children is presented in detail. The utility of local norms and their interpretation is discussed in the context of this local project. (Author/BW)

The construct validity of the Sequential Processing, Simultaneous Processing and Achievement scales of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children was supported by factor-analytic investigations of a representative national stratified sample of 2,000 children. Correlations provided insight into the relationship of sequential/simultaneous processing abilities to different achievement areas. (Author/BS)

Part of a special issue on adaptive behavior, the article discusses three assessment-related issues: (1) clarity of the construct of adaptive behavior; (2) norm samples for adaptive behavior scales; and (3) predictive validity of adaptive behavior scales. Improvements are noted in the standardization properties of major adaptive behavior scales. (Author/JW)

Develops an alternative analysis to the Peabody Individual Achievement Tests' authors' suggested use of a pairwise comparison system to determine when one academic area is significantly different from another. Suggests determining academic strengths and weaknesses relative to a child's average performance on the entire test. (Author/JAC)