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Although learning has always been a central topic for philosophy of education, little attention has been paid to the notion of group learning. This article outlines and discusses some plausible examples of group learning. Drawing on these examples, various principles and issues that surround the notion of group learning are identified and discussed. These principles and issues are then further elaborated in the context of a detailed discussion of practice theory and its relevance for thinking about group learning and group practice.

Purpose: This paper aims to problematise practice and contribute to new understandings of professional and workplace learning. Practice is a concept which has been largely taken for granted and under-theorised in workplace learning and education research. Practice has usually been co-located with classifiers, such as legal practice, vocational practice, teaching practice and yoga practice, with the theoretical emphasis on the domain--legal, teaching and learning. Design/methodology/approach: This is a theory-driven paper which posits a framework of six prominent threads for theorizing practice. It uses examples of empirical research to illustrate each thread. Findings: A framework of six prominent threads for theorising practice in professional learning is suggested. It understands practices as patterned, embodied, networked and emergent and learning entwined with working, knowing, organizing and innovating. By conceptualising learning as occurring via and in practices, prominent understanding of learning are challenged. The paper discusses each thread with reference to empirical research that illuminates it and indicates the contributions of practice theory perspectives in richer understandings of professional learning and change. Originality/value: This paper engages with the practice turn in social sciences to reconceptualise professional and workplace learning. It contributes to research on learning at work by supplementing current thinking about learning, particularly the socio-cultural conceptions of learning, with the resources of practice theories that attend to the regularities of practice.

During Paul Hager's years as a researcher, he has benefited enormously from his association with The Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia, its members, its annual conference and its journal. He was very honoured to have an issue of "Educational Philosophy and Theory" devoted to a consideration of his work. In this response to the various papers, he attempts to underline some of the key issues and the main points of contention surrounding them. In addition, he hopes to bring out further some of the important interconnections between the topics and concepts discussed in the contributions.

Many professions have requirements for professional development activities to ensure continuing registration or membership. These commonly focus on participation in a limited range of activities. This paper questions the assumptions behind such approaches and what alternatives might be considered. It explores the suitability of metaphors used for continuing professional education and suggests that continuing professional development might be better conceptualised within practice theory. It identifies what a practice theory view of continuing professional development might involve and discusses the implications, particularly the notion of locating development within the practices of work. (Contains 1 figure.)

According to Alasdair MacIntyre's influential account of practices, "teaching itself is not a practice, but a set of skills and habits put to the service of a variety of practices" (MacIntyre and Dunne, 2002, p. 5). Various philosophers of education have responded to and critiqued MacIntyre's position, most notably in a Special Issue of the "Journal of Philosophy of Education" (Vol. 37.2, 2003). However, both in that Special Issue and since, this debate remains inconclusive. Much of this earlier discussion seems to accept that teaching is a unique case in being a putative practice that does not fit readily into MacIntyre's account. In fact many supposed practices, including some nominated by MacIntyre himself, do not fit his account. A constructive critique of this account leads to a refurbished, broadly MacIntyrean account of practice. This will clarify the issue of whether teaching and a range of other activities are, indeed, practices.

The ghosts of this paper refer to the ways in which diverse practices and learning styles coincide in particular frames. This article will combine the philosophy of mind with educational poststructuralism to generate an informed approach to understand learning-practice. This combinational analysis rests on certain principles and focus points such as: 1) Language plays a crucial role in the orchestration of practice; 2) Learning cannot be separated from its contextual instantiations; 3) The conjunction learning-practice is meaningless without a discussion about the language of practice and the learning context. This approach called learning-practice will be furnished with an example taken from research into vocational education and the learning of an orchestra. This example will act as an experimental field to test the principles and focus points of learning-practice. The research field also acts to examine the coherence and cogency of the philosophy of education that we may draw from this perspective that strategically deploys ideas taken from Ludwig Wittgenstein, Gilles Deleuze & Félix Guattari and Gilbert Ryle.

This paper argues that much contemporary educational policy makes assumptions about learning that are directly contradicted by the best research and theorising of learning that has occurred over the last decade and more. This worrying mismatch is largely attributable to adherence by policy makers (and other key stakeholders such as employers), to "common sense" notions of learning transfer. In fact, these "common sense" notions of transfer have increasingly been discarded even in the learning transfer literature. However, we go further in arguing that transfer is a totally inappropriate metaphor for thinking about most learning, but especially for vocational learning. Accepting that thought about learning inevitably involves metaphors, we consider the merits and otherwise of various other learning metaphors including participation and construction. We conclude that the conceptual flaws of transfer can be avoided by employing alternative metaphors. The value of our recommended alternative is illustrated by its power to illuminate data on learning collected from various research projects.

Current theories of learning hold dominant assumptions about the type and scope of knowledge and skills taught in formal courses that prepare novices for professional practice at work. In performing arts educational contexts, a common emphasis continues to hone individual performance skills in order to gain technical mastery and to differentiate competitively against others. This paper analyses a case study of an alternative educational programme developed by a major orchestra, which serves to induct young players into becoming professional orchestral musicians. This analysis reveals the multiple kinds of learning that it is claimed can only be gained from context-sensitive participation in orchestral practice at work. Six distinctive features of this practice-based learning are discussed and implications drawn for how well the various main theories of workplace learning account for the types of learning identified in the case study. This paper concludes with some observations on what these findings suggest for Vocational Education and Training (VET) in general. (Contains 2 tables.)

Purpose: This paper aims to examine the nature of learning discovered by recent graduates participating in a symphony orchestra-initiated development program that is designed to nurture them through the transition to becoming professional orchestral musicians. Design/methodology/approach: Using a qualitative case study approach, the authors interviewed developing musicians and professional musician mentors individually and in small groups using a semi-structured protocol. Interviews were audio-taped and transcribed. The authors also observed musicians working together in rehearsal and in concert performance and reviewed documents on the development program, the organisation and the Australian performing arts industry. Findings: The findings suggest that learning is better conceptualised as an embodied constructed experience with others in context. What the authors call "guided contextualising" differs from conventional discussions of skill-based novice learning and mentorship. For musicians, the competency that is being developed is one of learning how to become, forming a sense of identity as broader musical citizens as well as becoming members of more instrumental communities. Practical implications: The design and structure of the program (and alternatives emerging overseas) suggest possibilities for new collaborations towards "a living curriculum" between higher education and industry. Originality/value: Rather than "employability", the concept of "graduateness" for young adults is formative and transformative, a process that involves the seeking of various forms of identity and contextualised learning that transcends self. "Becoming" practitioners together in generative ways enhances fitness for professional practice and develops a commitment to lifelong learning.

The notion of competence has received sustained and ongoing critical attention. Despite this, many important matters remain unclear. This article argues that much of the confusion can be traced to both proponents and opponents of competence variously sharing highly questionable assumptions about learning that revolve around viewing it as a product. An examination of various writings demonstrates the pervasive influence of these assumptions on both proponents and opponents. The result is ambiguity and equivocation as both camps run together items that are logically and conceptually distinct. It is argued that to advance these matters we need to distinguish clearly between three items--performance and its outcomes, the underpinning constituents of competence (capabilities, abilities, skills) and the education, training or development of people to be competent performers. This article identifies five pervasive errors that stem from a failure to recognise this threefold distinction. These distinctions are wholly consistent with an alternative conception that views learning as a process. When the three distinctions are maintained in an account of competence, it turns out that many common criticisms fail. It also turns out, however, that the notion of competence lacks many of the superficially attractive features that appealed in the first place to policy makers, politicians and industrialists.

Many countries have implemented versions of competency-based training in which competency standards or statements serve to provide standardized learning and skill development outcomes for vocational education and training. It seems that a main attraction that motivated the introduction of such competency-based systems was the assumption by some that they would be "failsafe", in that achievement of the learning and skill development outcomes would guarantee that the learner was workplace competent. However there were always convincing conceptual reasons for denying that the achievement of standards-based learning and skill development outcomes would be equivalent to being workplace competent. This paper aims to explain these reasons, to provide empirical evidence of the scope of the gap between formal standardized training and workplace competence, and to address the implications of this gap for the improvement of vocational education and training. The assumption that the gap could be avoided overlooks the crucial importance of context and culture in workplace performance. It is argued that sound vocational education and training needs to take account of these features.

Recent research on learning in work situations has focused on concepts such as 'productive learning' and 'pedagogy of vocational learning'. In investigating what makes learning productive and what pedagogies enhance this, there is a tendency to take the notion of learning as unproblematic. This paper argues that much writing on workplace learning is strongly shaped by people's understandings of learning in formal educational situations. Such assumptions distort attempts to understand learning at work. The main focus of this paper is to problematize the concept of 'learning' and to identify the implications of this for attempts to understand learning at work and the conditions that enhance it. An alternative conception of learning that promises to do more justice to the richness of learning at work is presented and discussed.

Explains the design and evaluation of a project aimed at fostering the critical thinking abilities and dispositions of first year students at an Australian university. Most of the tasks relate to applications of chemistry and physics in everyday life. Many students revealed that their thinking skills were enhanced by their experience in attempting the tasks in small cooperative groups. (SOE)

Examines the assessment of work-based learning, noting distinctions between "pure" and "professional" knowledge by offering a genealogy of learning; asserting that the distinction between academic and non-academic learning has become what Dewey termed a false dualism; examining relationships between judgment, activity, practice, and tradition; offering implications for learning; and concluding that there are inevitable tensions between good practice within limited contexts and potential good practice within wider contexts. (SM)

The standard paradigm of learning--isolated in individual minds, expressed verbally, propositional--distorts the role of judgment. An emerging paradigm based on Dewey and Wittgenstein recognizes the role of action and exercise of judgment; positions knowledge in individuals, teams, and organizations; and includes propositional, cognitive, conative, and affective capacities. (SK)

Addresses the question of the range of applicability of Bertrand Russell's conception of critical thinking. Argues that important instances of critical thinking require other resources in addition: decisions about the conduct of one's life, philosophical method, scientific methods, and creative thought. Identifies limitations of Russellian critical thinking. (RS)

In understanding the transformation of novices into proficient practitioners, theories of know-how and tacit knowledge have limited use. Examination of the dimensions of context that influence informal learning in the workplace supports practical judgment as an explanatory model. (Contains 21 references.) (SK)

Interviews illustrating professional judgment support characteristics of informal workplace learning: contingent, practical, process, particular, and affective-social. Growth in the capacity to make judgments occurs in three ways (1) ability to separate initial need from actualization of judgment; (2) ability to interpret conative-emotive and ethical considerations; and (3) decentering of practitioners' sense of identity. (SK)

Outcome-based education has been criticized for being narrow and limiting. However, broad generic outcomes have played an important part in liberal adult education and the perspectives of the latter can contribute significantly to the debate on outcome-based education. (Contains 27 references.) (SK)

Proposes definitions for on- and off-the-job assessment. Presents a model for education and assessment in the workplace that includes (1) development of knowledge, skills, and abilities; (2) performance in simulated or practice situations; and (3) competence in occupational practice. Considers when to choose on- or off-the-job assessment. (SK)

Examines aspects of informal learning: (1) credit toward formal qualifications; (2) the value of nontraditional knowledge; (3) learners' awareness of their own learning; and (4) sensitivity of informal learning to context. Concludes that informal learning does not fit with the narrow view of knowledge in formal education and learners are often unaware of the scope of their learning. (SK)

Notes that the introduction of competence-based training (CBT) into Australia was a tripartite initiative of government, industry, and unions. Relates this policy initiative to wider international trends; outlines some main features of CBT as it has been implemented in Australia; and considers advantages and limitations. (10 references) (Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education) (Author/CK)

Professions take different approaches to competency-based continuing education: (1) pharmacy and nursing analyze competence in terms of roles and tasks (performance); (2) law analyzes professional knowledge, skills, and attitudes (attributes); and (3) medicine analyzes attributes in the context of performance of professional tasks, an integrated approach. (SK)

Although education and training were distinct concepts when Taylorism dominated the workplace, it is no longer appropriate to separate them. Today's highly competitive environment requires the education of a flexible, multiskilled workforce, not training for narrowly defined employment tasks. (SK)

The arguments against the well-entrenched dichotomy between vocational education and general education are economic, technological, and educational. First, "nonvocational" general education is also preparation for work and can contribute to economic growth. Second, technological changes in the workforce are making specific skill training obsolete. Third, academic and vocational skills are better developed when taught in an integrated fashion. (SK)

The Strong Vocational Interest Blank was administered to all incoming freshmen at Berea College. Black freshmen males were found to differ significantly from white males on a bipolar factor of interest in social service vs. interest in the physical sciences. (Author)