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The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) recently released updated standards regarding how to determine whether any particular intervention may be deemed an evidence-based practice (EBP). As new criteria regarding the acceptance of any specific intervention as evidence-based become available, the question arises: Would the application of new standards to studies completed under the older guidelines result in changes to past conclusions? The current study examined if changes in EBP standards might change the classification of an exemplar practice that was previously designated as an EBP. In this case, we examined video modeling (VM), an accepted practice regarding skill acquisition in special education as an exemplar practice. In order to determine if the new CEC 2014 standards would impact a previously determined EBP finding, a re-examination of Bellini and Akullian's (2007) frequently cited meta-analysis that focused on VM as an intervention for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) was conducted. The results revealed that if Bellini and Akullian had conducted their review using updated CEC 2014 standards, VM applied to individuals with ASD would not have been classified as an EBP.

Not enough information on instructional practices specific for students with dyslexia in PE has been published. Given dyslexia's prevalence in the population, and the impact it has on students holistic learning, there is a tremendous need for teacher training about "best practices" when teaching those with dyslexia in all subjects, including PE. Therefore, this article will explain the key concepts of dyslexia, the multisensory approach as remedial training, and provide modification strategies that can increase student awareness, confidence, and strengths via PE learning opportunities.

Parents typically serve as the primary sexuality educators for their children. This qualitative research explored the experiences of parents from Arkansas in providing sexuality education to their children with intellectual disabilities. Semi-structured interviews were used to obtain the perspective of parents, followed by transcription and coding of data. The analysis of the interview data resulted in several themes related to effective comprehensive sexuality education. Themes discussed in this paper include the individual and unique needs of each child and their family, parents needing collaborative support from other knowledgeable adults, and clear communication in relation to communication partners, communication mode, and regarding topics and skills deemed necessary by parents.

Researchers have found that English teachers in the United States of America (USA) perceive providing writing instruction to students with emotional behavioral disorders (EBD) as a difficult task. This could be associated with the fact that students with EBD often work below skill level in the content area of writing compared to same age peers. Researchers continue to investigate interventions to increase academic outcomes for students with EBD. Utilizing a single case design, three middle school students with EBD were observed in a self-contained classroom to determine the effects of a traditional and technology based self-monitoring intervention focused on decreasing student off-task behaviors while increasing scores on writing assignments. The study took place in an urban school district within the Southeastern region of the USA. Results indicated that the first two intervention phases were equally as effective at reducing off-task behaviors. Additionally, the third intervention phase led to decreased off-task behaviors and increased writing scores for all students compared to the previous two phases. Social validity assessments indicated that the self-monitoring interventions were useful and relevant for teachers and students with EBD in the self-contained setting. Implications for teachers and educational researchers are discussed within this article.

Multitiered systems of support (MTSS) is an effective model for identifying students at risk for academic failure as well as behavioral concerns (excesses and deficits) that impede classroom success. Over the years, researchers have investigated the positive effects of the MTSS model on behavioral needs of students; however, to date the research has not focused on the need for embedding trauma-informed practices into the MTSS tiers. This article fills a void in the research by providing a framework for a trauma-informed MTSS (TIMTSS) model and a case study implementing this model. Specifically, it describes the scope, sequence, assessments, interventions, and staff roles across each tier as utilized in the pilot study. The success of this TI-MTSS model and lessons learned in this urban setting conclude the article along with suggestions for future research in other settings.

Teachers in Catholic schools are not immune from pressures to improve students' scores on high stakes tests, and standards-based education is not new to Catholic schools. Nationally, many public school systems have moved to implement Common Core State Standards (CCSS) or other similar standards. Assessment, in turn, has been tied to these standards. In many states, Catholic schools have the option as to whether to implement accepted state standards or to create standards of their own. The Committee on Catholic Education (CCE) gives each bishop the authority to lead the CCSS discussion at the local level and to eventually make a decision based on what is best for each individual diocese (2014). Regardless of implementation of government mandates, students graduating from Catholic schools will ultimately be held to the same standards and outcome-based measures when it comes to their graduates' ability to compete for post-secondary educational scholarships, national merits, and other accolades based in part on national standardized test scores. The academic achievement data provided by public school systems allow parents and others to see if their students meet grade level standards. Catholic schools then, must provide such data if they wish to measure themselves against those enrolled in the competing public and private schooling options. If Catholic schools are to remain a viable option in this ever-increasing competitive educational environment, teachers must become more comfortable collecting and analyzing data in an effort to help drive instruction and high levels of academic achievement. The collection of data to drive instruction is often referred to as data informed instruction (DII). The premise behind DII is to imbed data collection into daily classroom routines, use the data to make any necessary instructional plans or modifications, and to continuously monitor student performance to predict academic gains. When DII is used properly, it becomes an ongoing formative assessment. These formative assessments allow progress monitoring at the individual, class-wide and building levels, while providing an opportunity for teachers to adjust teaching strategies and make instructional modifications as needed (Sattler, 2001). This article outlines how Catholic schools can set up a professional development program that informs, educates, and gains buy-in from teachers surrounding the use of data-informed instruction in Catholic classrooms and across a diocese. The steps that are addressed include the need to change perceptions, inform teachers on how to collect and examine data (behavioral and educational), and end with ways to help make data collection and analysis an efficient component of daily routines.

Single case studies are helpful in analyzing the details of implementation of an individualized intervention program (reference). Their exploratory nature can result in more case studies, which can be compared to allow for better understanding of an intervention's usefulness. This case study investigated the effectiveness of using brief intervention probes for two different evidence-based interventions to identify the most effective teaching strategy for a struggling elementary school reader. Following initial grade level placement, two intervention probes were tested by rapidly switching between them, then analyzing the data. The intervention that yielded the most gains in words correctly read (WCPM) was selected and implemented to increase the likelihood for success. Results were promising as WCPM increased by 37 words from baseline to intervention. The study provides a glimpse into a much-needed area of research regarding using brief intervention probes to determine the most effective specific interventions prior to implementation. This research provides recommendations for use within any intervention model, especially Response to Intervention. (Contains 1 figure.)

Language development in typically developing children has a very predictable pattern beginning with crying, cooing, babbling, and gestures along with the recognition of spoken words, comprehension of spoken words, and then one word utterances. This predictable pattern breaks down for children with language disorders. This article will discuss Skinner's verbal behavior theory and will provide the techniques needed to teach children to repeat, request, label, and respond with novel responses in a conversational method by providing the reader with step-by-step instructions for successful implementation.

Differentiated instruction denotes varying instruction in terms of content, product, and process to meet the needs of all learners. One way to differentiate the instructional process is to provide multi-tiered instruction. Examples of systematic approaches to multi-tiered instruction are response to intervention (RTI) and school-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS). RTI and SWPBS involve layers or tiers of increasingly more intensive high-quality research-based instruction, progress monitoring, and data-based decision making. Students receive additional tiers of instruction if they do not show progress towards attaining an academic or behavioral goal with the current level of instruction. These data are then used to determine the supports that students need to be successful. Technology, such as instructional software and online progress monitoring tools, can be utilized throughout tiered interventions to increase the efficiency in which students receive supports. This article will describe the components of tiered interventions: universal screening, three tiers of instruction within RTI and SWPBS, and progress monitoring. Examples of technology utilized in RTI and SWPBS will be described.

This study was an empirical investigation of active student responding (ASR) utilizing a student response system (SRS) vs. single student questioning (SSQ) and no student responding in a graduate level special education class of 23 participants. During the SRS condition, every participant responded to questions using remotes/clickers. During the SSQ condition, the instructor randomly called upon individual participants to vocally answer a question. During the control condition, no questions were asked of participants. An alternating treatments design was used to test the effects of the three conditions on the response accuracy to a short-answer quiz at the beginning of next session and accuracy with which participants completed a task during which they must apply the information presented during the lecture. There was statistically significant difference in student performance on application tasks, but not statistically significant difference on quiz scores. The findings diverge from the results other SRS studies and K-12 ASR studies, but support some college level studies.

Teacher praise is one of the most important elements of teaching and learning. Behavioral consultation with and without performance has been shown to be an effective method for increasing instructional praise. The authors used an ABCBC design to investigate the effects of an interdependent group oriented contingency (GC) and the GC plus performance feedback (GC+) on the rate of praise per student of six pre-service teacher group leaders during an eight week summer camp for children with disabilities. The results showed that the GC was partially or totally effective in increasing praise for three of the participants over baseline levels and the GC+ was effective in increasing praise of all six participants. The results are discussed within the context of literature on behavioral consultation.

Many students struggle with writing; however, curriculum-based measures (CBM) of writing often use assessment criteria that focus primarily on mechanics. When academic development is assessed in this way, more complex aspects of a student's writing, such as the expression and development of ideas, may be neglected. The current study was a preliminary analysis of viability of the words per thought unit (T-unit) as an alternative to traditional approaches to writing assessment. Participants included 167 children enrolled in the fourth and fifth grade, ages 9-11, in a rural southeastern U.S. school district. Writing samples were collected in three probes across the school year (fall, winter, and spring) and analyzed by using a variety of measures. Words per T-unit were positively linearly correlated with other measures of literary proficiency. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) assessed growth in writing across time and grade. Results indicated a statistically significant time effect within subjects for words per T-unit across grades. Thus, the analysis of words per T-unit yielded promising results as an efficient means of measuring writing skills independently of mechanics.

Given the recent interest in the use of video self-modeling (VSM) to provide instruction within iPod apps and other pieces of handheld mobile assistive technologies, investigating appropriate prerequisite skills for effective use of this intervention is particularly timely and relevant. To provide additional information regarding the efficacy of VSM for students with autism and to provide insights into any possible prerequisite skills students may require for such efficacy, the authors investigated the use of VSM in increasing the instances of effective initiations of interpersonal greetings for three students with autism that exhibited different pre-intervention abilities. Results showed that only one of the three participants showed an increase in self-initiated greetings following the viewing of videos edited to show each participant self-modeling a greeting when entering his or her classroom. Due to the differences in initial skill sets between the three children, this finding supports anecdotally observed student prerequisite abilities mentioned in previous studies that may be required to effectively utilize video based teaching methods. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are faced with many challenging behaviors that could impede their learning. One commonly reported problem behavior is noncompliance, which is often defined as a delay in response (latency), decrease in rate of responding (fluency), or failure to complete a task. This failure to comply in an appropriate amount of time has been noted as a primary factor for a child's exclusion from the community, poor social interactions, as well as limited instructional opportunities. This study examined the response latency, task completion, and accuracy in responding of an adolescent with ASD utilizing a changing criterion design. Reinforcement was provided only when the student answered a question or complied with an instruction accurately and within the preset criterion which was successively and gradually reduced. Results indicated that response latency decreased from an average of 4.6 seconds down to an average of 2.4 seconds and that there was a significant decrease in no responses. Findings show that differential reinforcement of short latencies resulted in a decrease in response latency and an increase in compliance. Thus, the study yielded positive results and paved the way for future research. (Contains 5 figures.)

According to the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2000), autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by impairments in social and communicative behaviors with great variations in ability, depending on developmental level, intelligence, and chronological age. One common thread for all individuals who are diagnosed with autism is that if interventions are not designed to meet the individual's needs in a socially significant manner, the individual has a poor prognosis (Heward, 2009). Two of the more common tools for teaching communication skills to individuals with disabilities related to communication are the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS; Bondy & Frost, 1994), which relies on the exchange of pictures representing a desired object, place, or event, and mand training (Rosales & Rehfeldt, 2007; Skinner, 1957). The term "mand" is defined as "a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the functional control of motivating operations and specific reinforcement" (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, p. 30); that is, people request specific items or things only when they are motivated to do so. The primary goal of this study was to teach a nonverbal man who was blind and was diagnosed with autism to use sign language to mand for two highly desirable items: food and drink. (Contains 4 figures.)

Posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are well documented in parents of children diagnosed with chronic disabilities and life-threatening illnesses. The occurrence of PTSS in parents of children with autism spectrum disorders (autism) has not been directly linked but instead only mentioned without data supporting the claim. This research was a retrospective study examining the occurrence of PTSS in parents of children with autism. The instruments used included in the survey were the Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R) and the LA Symptom Checklist (LASC). The IES-R was used for group membership (PTSS or not) and the LASC was used to determine if further psychosocial ailments were common to one group over the other. The findings validate the existence of PTSS in a subpopulation (20%) of parents. These findings document a need to recognize the degree of psychological impact/distress in parents resulting from their child being diagnosed with autism. Awareness of parental PTSS, will help ensure the necessary steps are taken to see that the parents/child's caretakers are healthy and that the child's access to treatment is not compromised due to parental stress. (Contains 2 tables.)

We investigated teacher versus student seat selection in the context of group and individual seating arrangements. Disruptive behavior during group seating occurred at twice the rate when students chose their seats than when the teacher chose. During individual seating, disruptive behavior occurred more than three times as often when the students chose their seats. The results are discussed in relation to choice and the matching law. (Contains 1 figure.)

Trends in educational research, teaching practices, and teacher responsibilities change over time. There is currently a movement away from relying on summative assessment and large-group research to assessing individual students on a formative basis. This push is partially legal, and the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) is encouraging adoption of Response to Intervention (RtI) at all levels of education. One research methodology that is particularly poised to meet the call by IDEIA is single-subject research designs, which have recently been endorsed by the What Works Clearinghouse. This article provides an overview of common single-subject designs, discusses the underlying logic of these designs, identifies many advantages this methodology provides to the classroom, and describes the dimension of behavior that may be measured and graphed for visual analysis. Understanding single-subject research designs and their use at the middle and secondary level is one of the first steps toward implementation of the RtI model after elementary school. (Contains 6 figures.)

Positive educational outcomes often include success in reading, math, and writing, which are beneficial skills that will assist students in school and beyond. However, in education it is important that the classroom focus not only on subject and content-specific learning, but also on behavior and societal expectations for following rules. When rules are not followed, students are not able to attain the needed educational goals set forth by federal and state education departments. Consistently not following rules leads to behavioral excesses, such as off task behaviors, talking out, and out of seat behavior. Often these excesses are a direct result of inappropriate or ineffective classroom management techniques. (Contains 5 figures and 1 table.)

We trained parents to tutor their child through implementing a repeated reading procedure designed to increase oral reading fluency. Our study was conducted over a two-week winter break at the homes of the parent and child. Baseline data for each child were collected using curriculum-based measurement (CBM) to determine an instructional reading level prior to the tutoring session. Following baseline, we trained parents as tutors to implement all aspects of the reading procedure including administering, scoring, and recording data. All sessions were audio recorded to assist with the data collection, scoring, treatment integrity, and interobserver agreement (IOA). According to results from our study, parent tutors were able to accurately score the reading probes and implement the repeated reading procedure with a high level of treatment fidelity following the training. In addition, parents were satisfied with the tutoring experience and the reading fluency for all children increased at the completion of the tutoring sessions. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

The idea that the American education system is at risk is not a new one. This notion was brought to the top of the public agenda 25 years ago with the publication of "A Nation at Risk," and is still actively being addressed through legal reforms, mandates, and laws. In this article, the authors narrow the focus of "A Nation at Risk" to consider a subpopulation of students at risk. They discuss the recommendations outlined in that landmark report that are specifically related to the field of special education, look at efforts to address those recommendations, and conclude with a glimpse into the future of the field. (Contains 14 notes.)

For decades, the supply of qualified special educators has been critically low. In 1983, the shortage of special educators was highlighted in "A Nation at Risk," and the situation remains much the same 25 years later. The most recently available data indicate that just 0.86 teachers were prepared for each available position in special education, while more than twice as many teachers were produced for each available position in elementary education. In this article, the authors emphasize that there is a pressing need not only to recruit and retain qualified special education teachers, but also to diversify the special education teaching force. Failure to address these issues will mean that the most vulnerable individuals, children with special needs, are the ones most likely to suffer the most. (Contains 6 notes.)