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With technological advances, it is now possible to use games to capture information-rich behaviours that reveal processes by which players interact and solve problems. Recent problem-based games have been designed to assess and record detailed interactions between the problem solver and the game environment, and thereby capture salient solution processes in an unobtrusive way (Zoanetti, 2010; Bennett et al., 2003; Shute & Wang, 2009). The Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills project used an innovative approach to capture these processes through responses (activities and communication patterns) within collaborative games (Griffin & Care, 2015). Game player response patterns are identified as behaviours that are indicative of skills and are captured in real-time game play within time-structured log files. The analysis of these log files allows for inferences to be drawn in regard to the efficiency and quality of player performance. A concern with this approach is that game development for this purpose is complex, time consuming and expensive, with unique scoring applied to each game. This paper presents another approach that identifies, across games, common behaviours. A systematic scoring system for assessing player behaviours in games could provide access to useful data not only from new games but from existing games. This paper presents such an approach using collaborative games situated in a problem-solving context.

This paper revolves on the premise that teachers' adoption of developmental model is more likely to improve student learning and performance as compared to the utilization of deficit approach. Deficit or clinical approach to learning has the tendency to focus on things that students cannot do, thus followed by teacher prescriptions of a "fix-it" remedy. There are a number of harmful effects of such approach on student learning particularly in creating the learning environment that appeals only to low-achieving students and one that unintentionally neglects the high-achievers--the results of teachers perceiving this group of students as facing no learning issues, thus requiring "no fixing". In contrast, developmental model focuses on student readiness and builds on the existing knowledge bases of every student. Despite extensive research that looks at the effects of deficit approach on learning, very little discussion is documented on its alternative and model of teaching that could potentially improve the performance of every student. Studies that look at teachers' utilization of developmental model are limited, the findings of these studies indicate that the developmental model encourages learning of both high achieving and low achieving students, and significant improvement in student performance across all ability groups. We take the position that developmental model assists teachers to better target their teaching at group and individual levels. Hence the discussion focuses on issues that surround deficit approach, the "how to" with regards to the use of developmental model, as well as challenges and realistic expectations of its applicability.

This paper explores ways of capturing teachers' formative assessment behaviors in Philippine classrooms through an observation tool. Early versions of the tool were structured using the 'Elicit-Student response-Recognize-Use' ESRU model. To account for the practices observed in the classroom, the observation tool was resituated to focus on Elicit (E) and Use (U) components. Both cultural and physical factors that characterize the Philippine classroom were considered to help ensure that the observation tool would reflect current practices in classrooms. Data from the tool are envisioned to inform the Philippines' Department of Education as they embark on the development of teacher competencies in formative assessment. The final version of the tool captures the basic practices in a reliable way. The tool provides a model of increasing competency in formative assessment implementation that can be used to design teacher training modules and for professional development.

Many developing countries are investing in large-scale initiatives to deploy information and communications technology in schools. However, merely equipping schools with hardware and software does not guarantee that the technology is used effectively to improve learning outcomes. This study aims to identify factors that influence the use of technology in schools in a developing-country context. It investigates this through a multiple-case study of the Australian AID tablet computer programme in the Philippines, in which 1000 tablets were given to nine public schools for student use. Focusing specifically on the impact at a whole-school level, the study revealed factors affecting outcomes that were specific to a developing-country context, as well as confirming the relevance of more general factors identified in the literature. The study also brings to light tablet-specific benefits and issues in this context. These results have implications for the effective school-level implementation of technology programmes in developing countries. Recommendations that proceed from these are presented for policy-makers and school administrators looking to use these devices in schools.

Recent educational and psychological research has highlighted shifting workplace requirements and change required to equip the emerging workforce with skills for the 21st century. The emergence of these highlights the issues, and drives the importance, of new methods of assessment. This study addresses some of the issues by describing a scoring process for measuring collaborative problem solving (CPS) in online environments. The method presented, from conceptualization to implementation, centers on its generalizable application, presenting a systematic process of identifying, coding, and scoring behavior patterns in log stream data generated from assessments. Item Response Theory was used to investigate the psychometric properties of behavior patterns. The goal of this study was to present an approach that informs new measurement practices in relation to sociocognitive latent traits and their processes. The generalized scoring process provides an efficient approach to develop measures of social and cognitive skills in online environments.

Collaborative problem solving is a complex skill set that draws on social and cognitive factors. The construct remains in its infancy due to lack of empirical evidence that can be drawn upon for validation. The differences and similarities between two large-scale initiatives that reflect this state of the art, in terms of underlying assumptions about the construct and approach to task development, are outlined. The goal is to clarify how definitions of the nature of the construct impact the approach to design of assessment tasks. Illustrations of two different approaches to the development of a task designed to elicit behaviors that manifest the construct are presented. The method highlights the degree to which these approaches might constrain a comprehensive assessment of the construct.

The Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S™) project undertook a research and development plan that included conceptualization of 21st century skills and assessment task development. Conceptualization focused on the definition of 21st century skills. This article outlines the particular case of one of these skills, collaborative problem solving, from its definition and identification of subskills, to development of a method for its assessment. The theories contributing to construct definition are described. These have implications for the particular clusters of subskills that are of interest for educational assessment. An approach to assessment task creation is illustrated through the deconstruction of a well-known reasoning task, and its re-development to sample both the cognitive and social aspects of collaborative problem solving. The assessment tasks are designed to generate formative feedback for teachers in order to identify levels of ability within and between their students and support tailoring of instruction differentially for improvement.

An overview of positive and negative potential effects of the setting of compulsory exit-level standards in literacy and numeracy for students completing their final years of schooling is presented. The overview rests on studies completed primarily outside Australia, reflecting the reality of such practices not having been implemented widely in Australia. Both negative and positive potential effects are discussed, culminating in a summary of the evidence for these. The relevance of implementation of such standards in Australia is considered, particularly in the context of the implementation of the national curriculum. Notwithstanding individual studies, which appear to demonstrate both negative and positive impacts of such standards, the weight of evidence is judged to be insufficient to justify implementation of this approach in Australia.

As a policy initiative to improve student achievement, a number of jurisdictions have introduced compulsory literacy and numeracy standards for senior secondary students, the meeting of which forms a hurdle requirement for the award of the senior secondary exit certificate. While such a requirement is sometimes justified by policymakers as a response to the concerns of interested groups such as employers and further education providers, these concerns are usually anecdotal in nature. There is a dearth of research examining the views of these groups regarding compulsory literacy and numeracy exit requirements for senior students. This study sought to redress this lack by exploring, through interviews and focus groups, the views of Australian employers, teachers, parents and a range of further education providers regarding compulsory literacy and numeracy exit standards. Participants were asked about the degree of support for such standards, which literacy and numeracy skills they deemed essential for successful transitions to work, further study and civic participation, and their views on potential means of assessing compulsory literacy and numeracy standards. Most participants were in favour of compulsory exit literacy and numeracy standards, but views on the nature of the essential skills students required, and on appropriate assessment methods, differed widely. Implications for policymakers are discussed. (Contains 2 tables.)

Background: Research on gender differences in intelligence has focused mostly on samples from Western countries and empirical evidence on gender differences from Southeast Asia is relatively sparse. Aims: This article presents results on gender differences in variance and means on a non-verbal intelligence test using a national sample of public school students from the Philippines. Sample: More than 2,700 sixth graders from public schools across the country were tested with the Naglieri Non-verbal Ability Test (NNAT). Methods: Variance ratios (VRs) and log-transformed VRs were computed. Proportion ratios for each of the ability levels were also calculated and a chi-square goodness-of-fit test was performed. An analysis of variance was performed to determine the overall gender difference in mean scores as well as within each of three age subgroups. Results: Our data show non-existent or trivial gender difference in mean scores. However, the tails of the distributions show differences between the males and females, with greater variability among males in the upper half of the distribution and greater variability among females in the lower half of the distribution. Descriptions of the results and their implications are discussed. Conclusions: Results on mean score differences support the hypothesis that there are no significant gender differences in cognitive ability. The unusual results regarding differences in variance and the male-female proportion in the tails require more complex investigations.

The influence of vocational interest, self-efficacy beliefs, and academic achievement on choice of educational pathway is described for a cohort of Australian students. Participants were 189 students aged 14-15 years, who were considering either academic or applied learning pathways and subject choices for the final 3 years of secondary school. Using Holland's interest model within a social cognitive career theory (SCCT) framework, logistic regression analyses indicated that all three constructs were significant predictors of pathway and subject selection and enrolment. The best predictive model for students with strong Realistic interests was an interaction of self-efficacy and interest. For Investigative students, both self-efficacy and achievement were best predictors and for Artistic, Social, and Conventional, achievement was the best predictor of future course enrolment. The results of this research offer partial support for the theory of Lent, Brown, and Hackett in that a variable pattern of associations between vocational interest, self-efficacy, and achievement emerged across the Holland interest themes. (Contains 4 tables.)

Outcomes and findings from an evidence-based approach to targeting primary school students' developmental reading comprehension levels for effective learning are described. Nineteen schools participated in a literacy assessment project designed to monitor and improve the reading comprehension achievement levels of their students. The project integrated a developmental approach to learning and teaching, information derived from standardised reading comprehension assessments, and professional development for teachers. Reading comprehension achievement across the schools increased at a higher rate than typically expected. Teacher discourse about teaching and learning changed from discrete skill and resource focused, to developmentally focused. The centrality of a professional learning team approach to change for the student, teacher and school is discussed. (Contains 1 table and 3 figures.)

This study examined the interrelationships between coping styles, emotional wellbeing, and school connectedness using path analysis. A total of 536 Year 8 students (241 boys and 295 girls) responded to an in-class survey and the "Adolescent Coping Scale" (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1993a) as part of a larger study. Productive coping style was positively related both to student-reported sense of wellbeing and, to a lesser extent, to school connectedness. A non-productive coping style was found to be inversely related to students' sense of wellbeing and connection to school. Students' sense of emotional wellbeing was found to be positively related to school connectedness. The negative relationships between non-productive coping with emotional wellbeing and, to a lesser extent, with school connectedness highlight the importance of taking into account the influence of risk factors as well as positive factors when focusing on enhancement of wellbeing and connectedness in secondary school students. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

This study examines whether self-concept scores of deaf students vary according to age at diagnosis of deafness, the degree of deafness and the number of visits students receive from a teacher of the deaf. Thirty-seven deaf students between the ages of 12 and 18 attending inclusive educational settings in Western Australia participated in the study. The Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, Second Edition (Piers-Harris 2) was used as a measure of self-concept. Overall, group mean self-concept scores on the Piers-Harris 2 were within the average range, with some differences between groups in relation to these. There were no significant main effects of age at diagnosis of deafness or the degree of deafness on Piers-Harris 2 domain scale and total self-concept scores. There was also no significant main effect of the number of visits by a teacher of the deaf on the Piers-Harris 2 total self-concept score. However, a significant main effect of the number of visits from a teacher of the deaf found on Piers-Harris 2 domain-scale scores was attributable to differences between the groups on the Physical Attributes and Happiness and Satisfaction scales. Specifically, students receiving one visit per week scored higher on these self-concept scales than students who received two or more visits per week. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed. (Contains 3 tables and 3 figures.)

The internal use of language during problem solving is considered to play a key role in executive functioning. This role provides a means for self-reflection and self-questioning during the formation of rules and plans and a capacity to control and monitor behavior during problem-solving activity. Given that increasingly sophisticated language is required for effective executive functioning as an individual matures, it is likely that students with poor language abilities will have difficulties performing complex problem-solving tasks. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between language ability and verbal and nonverbal executive functioning in a group of deaf students who communicate using spoken English, as measured by their performance on two standardized tests of executive function: the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) 20 Questions Test and the D-KEFS Tower Test. Expressive language ability accounted for more than 40% of variability in performance on the D-KEFS 20 Questions Test. There was no significant relationship between language ability and performance on the D-KEFS Tower Test. There was no relationship between language ability and familiarity with the specific problem-solving strategies of both D-KEFS Tests. Implications of the findings are discussed.

For several decades the intellectual abilities of deaf children and adolescents, as measured by performance IQ, have been reported as comparable with those of hearing children and adolescents. Differences have been reported, however, on measures of verbal IQ, with deaf children and adolescents typically obtaining verbal IQ scores within the low average to well below average range. More recent studies of the intellectual abilities of deaf children and adolescents using the Wechsler scales, while supporting this finding, have not taken into consideration all subgroups within the deaf and adolescent population nor accounted for the degree of variability in their language abilities. The aim of this study was to investigate intelligence test performance for subgroups of deaf children and adolescents who communicate using spoken English and for whom language ability is known. To do this, two groups of participants were included in the study: those with age appropriate spoken language (AA) and those with a spoken language delay (LD). Results showed that the AA group scored significantly higher on all measures of performance and verbal IQ than the LD group. The performance and verbal IQs of the LD group were similar to those of previous studies of deaf children and adolescents. The results of this study extend and elaborate on current views of intelligence and deafness and the potential impact that spoken language ability has on intelligence test performance for different subgroups within the deaf child and adolescent population, particularly those who communicate using spoken language. (Contains 8 tables and 3 figures.)

Research on career development has focused primarily on adolescents and adults. However, in Gottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise (2002) it is proposed that career aspirations originate in the preschool years and that the earliest work aspirations of children are sex typed in relation to the activities of same sex adults. This article investigates young children's career development in the context of Gottfredson's stage theory. Eighty-four children attending a kindergarten/early learning centre for four- to five-year-old children exhibited sex typing of their aspirations, with the vast majority nominating real occupational roles as opposed to fantasy ones, as aspirations for adult life. The pattern of boys' and girls' aspirations differentially support Gottfredson's proposals. Questions are raised concerning the stability of patterns of aspirations in terms of sex type in a changing society. (Contains 3 tables and 1 note.)

High school students' subject preferences in 30 Australian schools, examined with Holland's typology of persons and environments, showed data consistent with Holland's model, suggesting a strong association between interest in school subjects and occupational interest as well as an empirical basis for classifying school subjects in terms of interest themes. (Author/MSE)