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This paper proceeds from the assumption that (1) thinking about values is necessary and critical for people interested in curriculum; (2) curriculum designs are value-oriented statements; (3) in approaching curriculum thinking from an interest in values, it is important to identify clearly the unit of interest and its relationship to other units of interest; (4) the focus and use of values thinking will be different from one unit of interest to another; and (5) that attempts at a productive dialogue, when primary interests are in different units, lead to hostility and confusion rather than to understanding and clarity. From these assumptions, the author draws four implications: (1) it is important to clearly identify ones unit of interest before entering into dialogues concerning values in curriculum, because the unit of interest will determine the focus of values-thinking; (2) values-thinking at the conceptual, transactional, and transformational levels is referenced by the mode of thought at the preceding level; (3) practice affects theory building through the interaction of the generative mode of the transformational level with the theoretical level; and (4) the proper focus of study for understanding the valuing process is the interaction between the transactional and transformational levels. (Author)

This is the first of a set of four papers on the use of computers in mathematics education. It includes a discussion of the impact of the computer on society, types of computer systems and languages; instructional applications, administrative uses, libraries and data bases, the design of computer-oriented curricula, and cost effectiveness. For the other papers in this series, see SE 016 290 through SE 016 292. (Author/DT)

Interaction in the teaching team, team status structure, and teachers' perceptions of the team's decision-making authority were investigated as important dimensions of the team-teaching organization. Relationships between these dimensions and the teacher's sense of his own influence and autonomy are described. Each of 17 teams in six team-teaching schools was observed during six of its planning meetings. The number of times each teacher initiated task-related communication was recorded and totals were averaged to obtain individual participation scores. Teachers also responded to a questionnaire about their perceptions of their own influence and autonomy. Results indicated that interaction in team meetings is related to teachers' perceptions of their own influence and autonomy. The organization of teachers into teams that have decision-making responsibility has implications for the way teachers feel about their own impact on decisions made both within and outside of the teams. Teaching teams do sometimes have balanced, or non-hierarchically differentiated status structures. The degree of balance in team structure is associated with the teacher's perception that he is influential and autonomous. It is possible, therefore, for a task group to have a status structure in which all members participate equally and perceive themselves as having substantial influence over the decisions made. (Author/MBM)

Although there has been much criticism of research and development activities in the field of education, the criticism has not been aimed at the real problem. The large amount of uncoordinated research activities and the lack of pre-planned linkages between research and practice has led to the existence of an expensive cottage industry in educational technology which tends to re-tool every academic year. Computers hold much promise in solving educational problems, but there are several questions which must be answered if computers are to become internalized into the educational process. Computers may be either a tool or a medium; they may be internalized gradually or all at once; they may be centralized into regional computer systems or diffused around the nation in the form of mini-computers. What is needed now is not another demonstration of the value of computer-based instruction, but a critical mass that is capable of providing a complete system and total curriculum. Educational research is basically sound; however, it must attack larger, more complex problems in a systematic way if we are to alter and improve the educational process. The necessary catalyst to unlock the potential of computer-based instruction could come from business, from education, or from the Federal Government. (JY)

Both the trend toward the scientific information explosion and the trend toward equal opportunity of education are altering what we teach and how we teach. While the movement in research and development in education has been toward using systems applications to deal with these changes, there are some problems with this approach. The domain of academic policy is a far broader system than that to which systems analysis is typically applied, and it is likely that the long range goals which a systems analysis provides will conflict with the short-range political pressures of the situation. Also, systems concepts have evolved from industrial situations in which the organization is quite different from the decentralized, horizontally organized academic institutions with different goals. For example, the input-output model is probably too concrete for education if, as it is now thought, 70% of those entering school today will work in jobs that do not now exist. Further, systems planners should not forget the human element in any system, especially as it relates to the processes of accepting system improvements. Finally, it should be noted that while information systems may have become a widespread fad, even perfect information may not improve system performance. (SH)

An overview is provided of the Fourth Revolution, i.e., the revolution which is taking place in education as a result of the introduction of computers into the field. The growth of computing in education, especially in higher education, is traced, and some major National Science Foundation (NSF) programs are mentioned. Following this, a few of the most significant computer-assisted instructional system which have been developed with NSF support are described and the problems associated with the production and transportability of courseware are surveyed. The extent of computer literacy, both in the United States and abroad, is reviewed and, a discussion of the major needs which exist with respect to the use of computers in education is presented. (PB)

This exploratory study, primarily an information collection and analysis effort, was made to determine whether there is a difference in the effectiveness and the cost of cooperative vocational education programs and of vocational programs without a cooperative component. Study data from 12 school districts in three States (Minnesota, North Carolina, and Ohio) for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 school years were used to explore the feasibility of conducting such a cost-effectiveness analysis. It was found that it is possible to analyze historical cost and effectiveness data on selected vocational education programs but that it is not possible to directly compare cooperative programs to those without a cooperative component, as it is unlikely that similar programs are offered using both methods. However, cost-effectiveness analyses may be used as one element in policy formulation concerning vocational education methodologies. Detailed information collected and interpreted in the study are provided, leading to the overall conclusion that there is no obvious difference in the cost of providing either type of program nor are there any obvious differences between graduates of the two types of programs. A very limited employer survey indicated that employers tend to favor graduates of the cooperative programs. Recommendations for further in-depth studies are presented. (MF)

The Office of Education, through the Bureau of Research and the Bureau of Elementary and Secondary Education, has spent approximately $67 million on research and research related activities, planning projects, and operational programs on the application of computer technology and its use in education. Appendix A lists projects funded through the Bureau of Research for 1967, 1968, and 1969--thirty-five on computer assisted instruction and computer managed instruction, 13 on programing for specialized data development and analysis, 11 on computer models and simulation, 24 on data banks and information retrieval systems, 11 on computers in administration and organization, and 37 on curriculum and training for computer application. Appendix B contains the abstracts of these projects. Appendix C lists 158 reports which have appeared in the journal "Research in Education" on computer related activities. Twenty regional educational laboratories, their addresses, major program interests, and specific computer projects are listed in Appendix D. Appendix E provides a list of 11 Research and Development Centers and 19 Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Clearinghouses, with their addresses. In Appendix F 155 Projects to Advance Creativity in Education (PACE) sponsored for 1966, 1967, and 1968 are listed. (JY)

Instructional media systems might be of help in meeting the educational crisis of today, but it is difficult to find systems which reached the potential demonstrated in pilot efforts. Some of the more obvious reasons for the failures in educational technology are these: there is research but not development, equipment but no materials, a market but no customer, money but not enough, programs but no systems, and there is the belief of educators that teachers should have autonomy. Questions that represent an approach to cost effectiveness in the use of educational media are these: All things being equal, what does it cost? What can I buy for a small increment in cost? What is the critical mass necessary to produce educational results? Can I find others to share the cost? Can the rules be rewritten so that the price is right? Some of the difficulties in applying cost effectiveness analysis to education are that education is an open system; effectiveness, not efficiency is the better criterion; financing may be difficult; and so may measurement. What is needed to make educational technology effective is the critical mass to produce quality materials and regional networks for large audiences. Media systems, utilizing television and computers, will be used when they come to be regarded as necessities. (MF)

Curriculum designers have derived data for instructional purposes from 1) the subject matter, 2) society, and 3) the learner. The computer plays an instrumental role in individualizing the presentation of curriculum derived from these sources. Research on instruction has concerned itself with devising material for individual needs and adapting them to meet the necessities of group instruction. Computer assisted instruction, computer managed instruction, and simulation programs have been developed for a wide variety of subjects. Another significant development in curriculum design has been the systems approach. The systems approach uses the tools of task analysis and behavioral objective statements to design an individualized instructional strategy. A consideration of national and regional manpower requirements, combined with content analysis of a total curriculum is but one approach to developing a dynamic curriculum. Interactive empirical procedures seem to produce more effective instructional materials. In order to minimize costs of a computer facility, regional computer networks have been established on a n experimental basis. A list of references is appended. (JY)

A ten year experiment in educational technology sponsored under Title VII of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale educational systems which can extend education to all while permitting the individualization of instruction without significant increase in cost (through television, computer systems, microform techniques, and multi-media programming). Adoption of new technology has been slow, however, due to its high cost so small school districts, the loss of local autonomy involved in accepting regional systems, and unwillingness to invest in systems of unproven success in the field. The fragmented nature of education tends to restrict the spread of new technology, especially to small or remote districts and to minority groups, where its effect would be greatest in guaranteeing a minimum level of education. Quality materials must be developed for presentation, and larger cost accounting units are needed. Media use is ineffective unless the whole educational system is geared to take advantage of it: what is now needed are development projects to organize these research findings into effective systems. (RB)

Explores factors associated with role conflict and ambiguity in top-level administrators in selected public agencies. Expands the range of antecedent factors currently used in the analysis of role conflict and ambiguity by examining an organization's relations with other organizations as well as its internal characteristics. (Author/IRT)

Discusses the importance of the computer in today's complex society. Argues strongly in favor of integrating the computer into education by introducing computer-related curricula at all levels of education, and thus developing a computer literate society. (GA)

The comparative properties of interacting organizations were examined as determinants of the nature of relations between organizations. Comparative properties of organizational domain were found to be important sets of variables for explaining interdependence, providing a context in which relationships occur, and serving as forces that impel or impede interaction. (JC)

A discussion of how the computer has compelled educators to devise new education experiences by which students can acquire information. (Author/HB)