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Executive function skills are crucial for children in the 21st century, serving as indicators of their readiness for learning. Children with well-developed executive function skills can effectively accomplish various tasks, solve problems using diverse strategies, and collaborate with others happily. This research aims to: 1. Identify the necessity for fostering executive function skills among early childhood students in Nonthaburi Province. 2. Analyze the causes underlying the necessity to promote executive function skills in early childhood students. 3. Propose strategies to enhance executive function skills in early childhood students. The research consists of two phases. Phase 1 involves identifying the necessity for developing executive function skills among early childhood students, with a sample group comprising 12 volunteer kindergarten teachers randomly selected from 12 classrooms and 328 early childhood students aged 5 to 5 years 11 months (162 boys and 166 girls). The research instrument used is the MU.EF-101 assessment. Data analysis involves calculating the mean and standard deviation of T-scores for working memory, inhibitory control, and shift/cognitive flexibility. Phase 2 analyzes the causes of necessity and proposes strategies to promote executive function skills in early childhood students. The data sources for this phase are 12 teachers, and the research instruments include fishbone diagram recording forms and group discussion recording forms. Findings suggest that parental involvement is crucial in training children to perform tasks independently and in teaching children patience. Additionally, teachers should analyze children's behaviors to plan appropriate learning activities based on their context. Teachers must encourage children to think and make decisions independently, encourage when mistakes occur, and ensure the availability of suitable tools and toys that promote the development of executive function skills in early childhood students, which teachers or parents can conveniently utilize.

The authors compare pretend play and executive function both in preschool children with an acquired brain injury and in neurotypical preschool children. They find the ability to produce logical, sequenced pretend play actions and object substitutions in play correlates strongly with executive function ability in both groups, and working memory emerges in their study as the most reliable predictor of pretend play in both groups of children. Their investigation highlights the need to include pretend play in rehabilitating children with brain injuries and the importance of pretend play for developing executive function in all children.

The COVID-19 pandemic may have exacerbated depression, anxiety, and executive function (EF) difficulties in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). EF skills have been positively associated with mental health outcomes. Here, we probed the psychosocial impacts of pandemic responses in children with and without ASD by relating pre-pandemic EF assessments with anxiety and depression symptoms several months into the pandemic. We found that pre-pandemic inhibition and shifting difficulties, measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, predicted higher risk of anxiety symptoms. These findings are critical for promoting community recovery and maximizing clinical preparedness to support children at increased risk for adverse psychosocial outcomes.

Mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, aggression, and inattention are common in autistic youth and are challenging to treat by community providers. We aim to parse the heterogeneity of autism based on dimensions of executive function and determine whether specific executive function profiles are differentially related to psychiatric symptoms. Parents of 397 well-characterized 8-14-year-old autistic children without an intellectual disability reported on their child's executive function skills and psychiatric symptoms. We applied a data-driven, graph theory-based, community-detection approach to a common executive function measure, revealing three distinct executive function profile subgroups. Despite having similar social challenges, the executive function subgroups differed on anxiety, aggression, affect, and inattention symptoms. Results support the need for more intensive subtyping with autistic youth to develop appropriate, individualized mental health treatments and supports. Characterizing youth through neurocognitive strengths and challenges can guide the development of precision medicine, allowing for more meaningful, specialized treatment.

There is no relationship more vital than the one a child shares with their primary caregivers early in development. Yet many children worldwide are raised in settings that lack the warmth, connection, and stimulation provided by a responsive primary caregiver. In this study, we used data from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP), a longitudinal study of institutionally-reared and family-reared children, to test how caregiving quality during infancy is associated with average EEG power over the first 3.5 years of life in alpha, beta, and theta frequency bands, and associations with later executive function (EF) at age 8 years. The sample comprised 189 children (129 institutionally-reared; 60 family-reared) who contributed data on observed caregiving quality during infancy (baseline; average age of 22 months), resting EEG power at baseline, 30, and 42 months, and performance-based data on a series of EF tasks at 8 years. Using Bayesian estimation, observed caregiving quality at baseline was marginally linked with higher average alpha and beta power, and lower theta power, from baseline to 42 months. In turn, higher average beta power and lower average theta power were marginally associated with higher EF at 8 years. In indirect effects models, higher caregiving quality at baseline was associated with higher EF at 8 years, with a marginal indirect effect through average theta power from baseline to 42 months. Variation in the quality of the early caregiving environment may be associated with later executive function, which is partially underpinned by individual differences in brain activity during early childhood.

This study was designed to test the effects of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) on depression levels and investigate the mediating role of executive function (EF) in adults. Adults with ADHD, DCD, and ADHD + DCD (N = 139) completed self-report measures of ADHD, DCD, depression, and EF. There were distinct profiles of EF across diagnostic groups, and higher depression symptoms in adults with ADHD + DCD than DCD alone. All EF domains were predicted by ADHD symptoms, and several by DCD symptoms. ADHD and DCD symptoms, and most EF domains, predicted depression symptoms. Overall EF difficulties fully mediated the relationships between ADHD/DCD and depression symptoms. Several specific EF domains relating to behavioural regulation and metacognition also showed full/partial mediating effects. The mediating role of EF difficulties between these neurodevelopmental conditions and depression symptoms has implications for their understanding and treatment, suggesting that targeting EF may be important for preventing co-occurring depression.

The number of students with disabilities (SWD) enrolling in postsecondary education continues to increase, yet degree completion rates continue to fall behind compared to peers without disabilities. There is an obvious need to investigate interventions to support postsecondary success so SWD can reap the benefits of a college education. Empirical evidence demonstrates that coaching is a promising support. This literature review aims to examine coaching interventions currently used to support SWD in postsecondary education. The authors reviewed relevant literature from 2009 to 2021 and identified 17 studies that met the search criteria. Findings indicate positive outcomes, including improved grade point average (GPA), time management, organization, learning and study skills, self-esteem, behavioral regulation, metacognition, and sense of well-being. The authors also include recommendations for additional research.

Executive functioning (EF) deficits, such as challenges with planning, organization, and materials management, negatively impact academic performance, particularly for middle-school students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) without intellectual disability (ID). The aim was to assess the initial efficacy of the school-based version of the Achieving Independence and Mastery in School (AIMS) intervention in a pilot randomized clinical trial. 47 autistic middle-schoolers without ID attending nine different schools were randomized to participate in AIMS or to wait to receive AIMS the following semester (waitlist control = WLC). Youth, caregivers, and teachers rated academic EFs and academic functioning, and youth completed an objective EF measure, at baseline and outcome (post). Effect sizes were computed comparing baseline and post measures within each group. Individuals randomized to AIMS improved from baseline to post on academic EF outcome measures with small to moderate effect sizes, compared to WLC, who made some improvements but with generally smaller effect sizes. Analyses with academic functioning measures showed a similar pattern of results. These promising results suggest that AIMS delivered in the school by school-based personnel to small groups of students with ASD without ID can improve academic EF skills.

The present study aimed to examine whether Mandarin-speaking children on the autism spectrum showed differences in comprehending spatial demonstratives ("this" and "that", and "here" and "there"), as compared to typically developing (TD) children. Another aim of this study was to investigate the roles of theory of mind (ToM) and executive functions (EF) in the comprehension of spatial demonstratives. Twenty-seven autistic children (mean age 6.86) and 27 receptive-vocabulary-matched TD children (mean age 5.82) were recruited. Demonstrative comprehension was assessed based on participants' ability to place objects in certain locations according to experimenters' instructions which involved these demonstratives in three different conditions (same-, opposite-, and spectator-perspective conditions). Four false-belief tasks were administered to measure ToM, and the word-span task and the dimensional change card sort task were used to measure two subcomponents of EF -- working memory and mental flexibility -- respectively. Children on the autism spectrum were found to score below TD children in the comprehension of spatial demonstratives. In addition, the results showed that ToM and working memory were conducive to the correct interpretation of spatial demonstratives. The two cognitive abilities mutually influenced their respective roles in spatial demonstrative comprehension in the three different conditions. The findings suggest that the comprehension of spatial demonstratives comprehension is an area of need in Mandarin-speaking children on the autism spectrum, and it might be linked to their differences in cognitive abilities.

Executive function (EF) skills are consistently associated with global mathematics assessments. However, less is known about which specific mathematics skills invoke EF in early childhood. We adapted batteries of EF, numerical, and patterning tasks to be conducted via synchronous video conferencing with typically developing 4-year-old children (N = 115, 56.6% female, 85.2% White, non-Hispanic, 7.8% Multiracial, 0.9% Hispanic, 0.9% Black, 1.7% American Indian/Alaska Native, 2.6% Asian and 0.9% missing) from primarily upper middle class households (maternal education range: some college to graduate or professional degree, mode = graduate or professional degree) in the United States. We found feasibility of remote adaptation varied greatly by task. Just over half of enrolled children (57.02%) completed all tasks and there were higher rates of missingness compared to an in-person sample with a similar age range collected in schools. Nonetheless, working memory predicted various mathematics skills, including patterning, verbal counting, and number comparison, controlling for age and maternal education. Relations between cognitive flexibility and patterning varied across model specifications. Overall, these findings provide insight into the costs and benefits of remotely administered direct assessments of EF and mathematics in early childhood and add to the growing body of literature suggesting working memory plays an important role in several foundational early mathematics skills. Suggestions are offered for remote assessment with preschoolers.

Every year, an increasing number of autistic youth enter a complex and underfunded adult service system after graduating from high school. Executive function (EF) challenges commonly co-occur with autism, especially related to flexible problem-solving and planning, and are linked to poor outcomes in post-secondary education and employment. The educational system is the primary service access point for autistic youth; however, evidence-based practices are rarely used to support them, and none exist to support pivotal EF skills in transition-age autistic youth. To meet this need, we developed "Unstuck & On Target: Ages 14-22," a school-based curriculum designed to increase independent, flexible problem-solving, planning, and self-advocacy skills in transition-age youth. We describe the iterative development of the "Unstuck: 14-22" curriculum and present implementation outcomes from a school-based trial. Ten schools, from which we enrolled 55 autistic 9th-12th graders with IQ [greater than or equal to] 80 were randomized to treatment as usual (TAU) or "Unstuck: 14-22" delivered by school staff. Teachers taught 25 lessons over a school year and provided implementation-related feedback on each lesson, which we used to revise curriculum content and materials. All "Unstuck: 14-22" schools taught the curriculum in its entirety, and teachers delivered it with high fidelity. Feasibility, acceptability, and satisfaction were similarly high. Findings indicate that "Unstuck: 14-22" could help build educators' capacity to provide targeted treatment to autistic youth in schools, which could be more widely accessed than clinic-based care. Trial registration NCT03199937, https://clinicaltrials.gov

Autistic individuals are at significantly higher risk of suicide than non-autistic individuals, with transition-aged youth at potentially the highest risk. While lower executive function (EF) skills have been significantly associated with suicide risk in other clinical samples, the link between EF and suicidality has not yet been examined for autistic individuals. In this study, 183 transition-aged autistic youths completed routine suicide risk assessments and self- and informant-reports of autistic traits, depression, and EF skills. On the P4 Suicide Screener, approximately one-third of the sample (33.3%) endorsed having thoughts of hurting themselves with the intent to end their lives (i.e., suicidal ideation) in their lifetime. In addition to depressive symptoms, EF impairment independently predicted endorsement of suicidal ideation, indicating that both are crucial intervention goals to target suicidal risk for transition-aged youth on the spectrum. Findings suggest that executive functioning, a prevalent area of difficulty and common intervention target for the autistic community, is an important indicator of suicide risk in this population.

There is a long tradition of research into autistic people's executive function skills. Yet, despite decades of research on EF in autism, the existing literature remains contradictory and 'confusing', with a large -- and unresolved -- discrepancy between small-to-moderate effect sizes demonstrated on laboratory-based EF tasks and large effect sizes on questionnaire-based everyday EF measures. We sought to understand this mismatch between 'lab and life' by inviting 12 autistic adolescents (12-19 years) and their mothers (n = 7) to convey their views and perspectives about their own, or their child's, EF skills as they transition to adulthood. We followed Braun and Clarke's method for reflexive thematic analysis using an inductive approach. Participants told us that their EF skills were highly variable, acutely dependent on the context in which they were deployed and potentially related to differences in the way that they process information more broadly. Participants' reports provided rare insights into their and their children's executive control -- insights that do not straightforwardly map onto traditional theoretical models of EF. Future work on EF needs to take seriously the perspectives and subjectivity of autistic people themselves, including by triangulating quantitative, objective assessments with qualitative, subjective reports in complementary (controlled, uncontrolled) settings.

Background: Immersive virtual reality (IVR) is a new technology that could motivate learners, but also could contain distracting elements that increase cognitive demands on learners. In contrast, learning with conventional media, such as a narrated slideshow could be less motivating, but also less distracting. Objectives: This experiment investigates: (1) in what situations executive function and working memory capacity play a role in learning in IVR and a slideshow lesson and (2) whether people learn science content better with IVR or with a narrated slideshow lesson. Method: Participants watched a lesson on ocean acidification either using a head-mounted display IVR device or a pre-recorded narrated slideshow lesson. A week later, they took a test on this material and completed tasks to assess executive function and working memory capacity. Results and Conclusion: On a post-test, there was no difference between IVR and slideshow lessons, but there were differences in the role of executive function in learning with these two media. For students learning in IVR, executive function correlated significantly with post-test scores, such that learners with stronger executive function did better on the posttest than those with weaker executive function, while for students learning with a slideshow lesson, executive function and working memory capacity did not correlate significantly with posttest scores. This research indicates that it is important to understand how a learner's attentional controls impact their understanding when using IVR for learning.

In multimedia learning, there is a lot of new information that learners are exposed to, making it a cognitively intensive process. Poorly-designed multimedia lessons can introduce distractions that must be dealt with by the learner. However, learners do not all share the same skill at managing incoming information or holding capacity, which could create individual differences in the impact of multimedia lessons on learning and lead to inequity in learning. In three experiments, learners saw a multimedia lesson varying in the amount of distracting material included: high (Experiment 1), moderate (Experiment 2), or low (Experiment 3). Learners took a posttest and completed tasks to assess individual differences in managing incoming information (executive function) and holding capacity (working memory capacity). When distractions were present (Experiment 1 and Experiment 2), executive function was related to posttest performance such that as executive functioning increased, performance on the posttest increased. However, when distractions were not present (Experiment 3), executive function was not related to posttest performance. Individual differences in working memory capacity were not related to posttest performance at any level of distraction. This indicates the importance of considering individual differences in learners' executive functioning in the design of multimedia lessons.

Digital technology in primary education can both be distracting and increase attentiveness. Many students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) have difficulties with skills that address attention, and teachers are expected to provide support. Such skills are referred to as Executive Function (EF) in neuroscience, relating to self-regulation, attention shifting, and inhibition of behavior. This systematic literature review outlines research on primary education during 2000-2022 that relates students' EF and digital technology through empirical data and suggested SEN-inclusive educational interventions. 288 full-text journal articles were assessed, and 26 were included for analysis. Findings include common game-based solutions for EF and SEN support, enabling explicit goals, short teaching activities, and recorded outcomes. Other examples include EF skills training and classroom management with digital monitoring devices. A substantially increased research interest during 2021-2022 was observed. Aspects needing further research are discussed, such as more special education views with cost-effective behavioral approaches.

Atypical connectivity patterns have been observed for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), particularly across the triple-network model. The current study investigated brain-behavior relationships in the context of social skills and executive function profiles for ASD youth. We calculated connectivity measures from diffusion tensor imaging using Bayesian estimation and probabilistic tractography. We replicated prior structural equation modeling of behavioral measures with total default mode network (DMN) connectivity to include comparisons with central executive network (CEN) connectivity and CEN-DMN connectivity. Increased within-CEN connectivity was related to metacognitive strengths. Our findings indicate behavior regulation difficulties in youth with ASD may be attributable to impaired connectivity between the CEN and DMN and social skill difficulties may be exacerbated by impaired within-DMN connectivity.

Background: While there is now considerable evidence in support of a relationship between executive function (EF) and academic success, these findings almost uniformly derive from Western and high-income countries. Yet, recent findings from low- to -middle-income countries have suggested that patterns of EF and academic skills differ in these contexts, but there is little clarity on the extent, direction and nature of their association. Aim: This study aimed to investigate the contribution of EF to pre-academic skills in a sample of preschool children (N = 124; M[subscript age] = 50.91 months; 45% female). Setting: Two preschools were recruited from an urban setting in a community with both formal and informal housing, overcrowding, high levels of crime and violence, and poor service delivery. Three preschools were recruited from rural communities with household plots, a slow rate of infrastructure development, reliance on open fires for cooking, limited access to running water and rudimentary sanitation. Methods: Pre-academic skills were assessed using the Herbst Early Childhood Development Criteria test, and EF was assessed using the Early Years Toolbox. Results: Although EF scores appeared high and pre-academic skills were low (in norm comparisons), EF inhibition ([beta] = 0.23, p = 0.001) and working memory ([beta] = 0.25, p < 0.001) nevertheless showed strong prediction of pre-academic skills while shifting was not significant. Conclusion: While EF is an important predictor of pre-academic skills even in this low- and middle-income country context, factors in addition to EF may be equally important targets to foster school readiness in these settings. Contribution: The current study represents a first step towards an understanding of the current strengths that can be leveraged, and opportunities for additional development, in the service of preparing all children for the demands of school.

Purpose: The study explored the distinct contributions of domain-general, behavioral, and reading-specific executive function to reading comprehension, and whether reading fluency and vocabulary moderate or mediate the relations between executive function and reading comprehension. Method: Data were collected from 129 4th and 5th graders (35.66%, 28.68%, 6.98%, and 28.68% for White, Hispanic, African American, and others, respectively; 54% are girls) who completed 9 assessments of domain-general and context-specific working memory, inhibition, and switching. Additionally, children completed assessments of reading comprehension, reading fluency, and vocabulary. Results: After controlling for all variables, among executive function variables, only behavioral and reading-specific executive function independently contributed to reading comprehension. Reading fluency and vocabulary partially mediated the relations between behavioral and reading-specific executive function and reading comprehension. Reading-specific executive function appeared to be particularly important for students with weaker vocabulary. Conclusion: These findings align with the context-specific hypothesis of executive function. Context-specific executive function may be more important than domain-general executive function in reading comprehension. Reading-specific executive function may be a distinct construct representing the integration of domain-general executive function and reading knowledge. This integration can enhance the efficiency of domain-general executive function when reading knowledge is limited, playing a compensatory role in reading comprehension.

Objective: Children diagnosed with cerebral palsy have been reported to be at increased risk of executive function deficits and neurodevelopmental disorders. This population-based cohort study aimed to assess executive function, attention, behaviour, and autism symptomatology in school-aged children with CP, using parent-report measures that can provide insight into everyday functioning in these neurodevelopmental domains. Methods: 74 participants (male n = 51) mean age 9 years 9 months, SD 1 year 1.2 months (range 8 years 0 months to 12 years 11 months), GMFCS I = 45 (60.8%), II = 17 (23%), III = 8 (10.8%), and IV = 4 (5.4%), were assessed on measures of attention and behaviour (Conners-3), executive function (BRIEF), and autism symptomatology (AQ10-Child). Analysis was via one-sample t-tests and MANCOVAs. Results: Participants' scores were elevated in comparison to the general population in all domains, while 29.1% of participants scored above the cut-off level on an autism symptomatology screener. Greatest impairment was reported for working memory (M = 60.7, SD = 10.0, t(72) = 9.2, p < 0.001), peer relations (M = 72.7, SD = 16.2, t(73) = 12.0, p < 0.001), and inattention subscales (M = 66.3, SD = 12.5, t(73) = 11.2, p < 0.001). No statistically significant differences were found for different GMFCS levels on domains of executive functioning. A statistically significant difference was found between GMFCS levels for inattention F(3, 71) = 3.83, p = 0.013, [partial eta-squared] = 0.162, with most elevated scores associated with GMFCS level II (M = 74.1, SD = 14.2). Conclusion: EF, attention and behavioural difficulties, and autism symptomatology are commonly reported in school-aged children with CP. Screening for these comorbidities using ratings scales will assist with early diagnosis and targeted intervention.

The study sought to understand the general trajectory of children's executive function, as well as whether there was heterogeneity among monolingual English-speaking and dual language learning children in their growth of executive function. In addition, the study examined whether monolingual English-speaking and dual language learning children demonstrated different developmental trajectories in their executive function development. Two executive function measures, the Peg Tapping and the Dimensional Change Card Sort Task, were used in the study. Findings of 122 children (Mean age = 3.68 years; 57% monolingual English speaking, 43% dual language learning) showed there was linear growth on children's executive function. Both monolingual English-speaking and dual language learning children varied significantly in their initial level of executive function and in their growth rate of executive function over time. In addition, monolingual English-speaking children demonstrated higher initial levels of executive function than dual language learners, while dual language learning children showed a faster rate of growth in executive function measured by the Peg Tapping test.

The COVID-19 pandemic and its concomitant restriction measures drastically altered the routines and learning formats of students from all levels. In addition, it has been shown that pandemic-related stress negatively impacted their mental health and cognitive functioning. Undergraduates have been signaled out as one of the populations most vulnerable to pandemic-related stressors. The following work examined the link between executive functions, perceived stress and reading comprehension among Argentinean university students during lockdown measures. In addition, potential effects of reading habits and screen exposure were considered. An executive function behavioral rating scale (ADEXI), a reading comprehension test and the PSS-10 stress questionnaire were administered to two-hundred social science students through an online survey. Executive difficulties increased with perceived stress, while lower inhibition was associated with longer TV times and being male. Stress and executive function associations can be interpreted as a detrimental effect, reverse or bidirectional causation. In turn, working memory issues led to worse comprehension (mediating the impact of perceived stress) while distal factors such as print exposure and mother education were positive predictors of reading outcomes (as expected). This finding suggests that undergraduates' difficulties to manipulate online information interfered with expository text processing, resulting in poorer comprehension performance.

Social problem-solving (SPS) skills represent an individual's ability to effectively solve daily problems. Although previous studies have demonstrated the positive effects of SPS interventions, there is still a lack of evidence on the relevant moderating factors. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of an SPS intervention on a sample of elementary school children, by focusing on the potential moderating effects of executive function. The participants included a total of 101 fifth graders (mean age of 10.6 years), who were divided into two groups for an immediate intervention (treatment) and delayed intervention (control). The following three aspects were measured pre- and postintervention: SPS skills, emotional regulation, and school adjustment. Preintervention, we measured two aspects of executive function using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, including working memory and inhibition. Following the intervention, the participants increasingly generated alternative solutions, which may have contributed to better adaptive functioning and solutions. However, we also observed some negative impacts on participants with lower executive functioning, including deteriorating effects on emotional regulation (problem solving) and life satisfaction. These findings emphasize the need to pay close attention to the individual profiles of the recipients to design more effective interventions.

This study aimed to determine the effects of the Active Early Learning (AEL) childcare center-based physical activity intervention on early childhood executive function and expressive vocabulary via a randomized controlled trial. Three-hundred-and-fourteen preschool children (134 girls) aged 3-5 years from 15 childcare centers were randomly assigned to the intervention (8 centers; n = 170 children) or control group (7 centers, n = 144 children) in May 2019. Participants were mostly Australian (85%) and from slightly higher areas of socio-economic status than the Australian average. There was an AEL intervention effect on inhibition ([Beta] = 0.5, p = 0.033, d = 0.29) and expressive vocabulary ([Beta] = 1.97, p = 0.001, d = 0.24). Integration of the AEL physical activity intervention into the daily childcare routine was effective in enhancing children's executive function and expressive language development.

This study investigated whether transitory and persistent poverty spells were associated with children's learning (literacy and numeracy scores) and executive function outcomes in Ghana. Children resided in the Greater Accra region (N = 2,154; 49% female; M[subscript age] = 5.2 years at wave-1) and were followed at four-time points over three years. Multivariate regression models were used to test whether exposure to transitory poverty (1-2 times) or persistent poverty (3-4 times) were differentially associated with child learning and executive function outcomes at wave-4 (M[subscript age] = 7.5 years) compared to children who did not experience poverty at any wave. Our results show that transitory poverty was significantly and negatively associated with children's literacy scores. Persistent poverty had the largest negative relations for both learning outcomes. Findings were mixed for executive function, with persistent poverty negatively related to cognitive flexibility, but not inhibitory control. Implications for global child development and learning are discussed.

Research Findings: Early elementary school is a crucial time for the development of executive functions, but less is known about the impact of parent-child narratives on executive function development in children of this age group. This study aims to investigate the influence of parental scaffolding styles in parent-child co-constructed narratives in the development of transitional kindergartners' executive function. The sample comprised 35 Hispanic and non-Hispanic parent-child dyads, who were video recorded discussing a past experience at home. Video recordings were transcribed and coded for parental scaffolding strategies. Through principal component analysis, three scaffolding styles were identified: elaborative, eliciting, and echoing. Children's executive function was measured using the pencil tap task. Hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that parents' echoing scaffolding style was positively and significantly associated with children's executive function outcomes, after controlling for child expressive language, maternal education, and parent dominant narrative languages. Practice or Policy: These findings highlight that the way parents scaffold their children's narratives can have a positive impact on their development of executive function. It also emphasizes the need for educators and practitioners to recognize the role of parent-child language interactions in supporting children's cognitive development, and to collaborate with families to promote positive developmental outcomes.

Objective: To examine the theoretical and empirical contribution of Joe Biederman and his colleagues to the understanding of executive function (EF) and ADHD. Method: We searched PubMed for references to EF in Biederman's publications and conducted a narrative review of this literature. Results: In 50 or more papers using neuropsychological tests, rating scales and measures of mind wandering, Biederman demonstrated that EF are evident in ADHD and closely linked to its underlying neurobiological and genetic risk. He argued that EF need to be monitoring to ensure comprehensive assessment and treatment, but could not be used as a diagnostic proxy. Conclusion: Biederman built an innovative and impressive collaboration to address the issue of EF in ADHD. His work shows a commitment to understanding of EF in order to improve patient care. Biederman laid down a roadmap for research in ADHD and EF for the rest of the field to follow.

Introduction: Executive function (EF) deficits are common in youth with ADHD and pose significant functional impairments. The extent and effect of interventions addressing EF in youth with ADHD remain unclear. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature review using PRISMA guidelines. Included studies were randomized controlled trials of interventions to treat EF in youth with ADHD. Results: Our search returned 136 studies representing 11,443 study participants. We identified six intervention categories: nonstimulant pharmacological (N = 3,576 participants), neurological (N = 1,935), psychological (N = 2,387), digital (N = 2,416), physiological (N = 680), and combination (N = 366). The bulk of the evidence supported pharmacological interventions as most effective in mitigating EF, followed by psychological and digital interventions. Conclusion: A breadth of treatments exists for EF in youth with ADHD. Pharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and digital interventions had the most favorable, replicable outcomes. A lack of outcome standardization across studies limited treatment comparison. More data on the persistence of intervention effects are necessary.

Executive function (EF) is essential for developing social competence (SC) in early childhood. However, previous research has primarily taken a general perspective of SC and overlooked its components. Furthermore, although EF and SC are known to influence each other across childhood, the mechanisms of this interaction remain unclear. Therefore, the current study aims to explore the intricate relationship between EF and overall SC and its distinct components, aiming to clarify the underlying dynamics of their interplay. A total of 448 children, aged 36-72 months, from 12 Chinese kindergartens participated in this study. Results indicated significant associations between EF and overall SC and its components. Moreover, ER mediated the association between EF and SC, while gender moderated this association, with a stronger effect among boys compared to girls. Implications for informing and refining educational practices and policies to foster children's cognition and emotional development are discussed.

Bimodal bilingualism involves the use of a sign language and a spoken language, and offers a unique opportunity to explore the cognitive effects of growing up bilingual. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between bimodal bilingualism and executive function (EF) in hearing children who are native users of a sign language. We studied three groups of children: bimodal bilinguals (users of a sign language and a spoken language), unimodal bilinguals (users of two spoken languages), and monolinguals, performing three cognitive tasks to measure different components of EF: visuospatial working memory (Odd One Out task), cognitive flexibility (Children's Colored Trails Test) and conflict resolution (Simon task). All groups of children obtained similar scores on the Odd One Out task and the Children's Colored Trails Test. Bimodal bilinguals displayed distinct patterns of conflict resolution in comparison to monolingual children: bimodal bilinguals had better overall accuracy and slower overall reaction time in the Simon task. The subsequent analysis did not find a straightforward trade-off between speed and accuracy. These results suggest that bimodal language experience and/or visual-spatial language usage may explain the small bimodal bilingual advantage in the Simon task that we observed in hearing children who are native signers.

In this registered report, we evaluated how sleep is related to school functioning. Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3002), we evaluated a series of structural equation models evaluating whether sleep at age 5 has a direct or indirect effect on academic achievement, executive function and classroom behaviour at age 9, and whether this relation is moderated by race or ethnicity, poverty, maternal education or disability. We found that sleep duration (but not other aspects of sleep health) had a direct, linear relation to attention problems, acting-out behaviours and executive functions, as well as an indirect effect on academic achievement through executive functions. We also found that this model was moderated by disability, poverty, maternal education and race or ethnicity. Our results suggest that experiencing insufficient amounts of sleep may have a disproportionately negative effect on children with disabilities or children whose mothers received less education. Initiatives to promote healthy sleep habits, including increasing sleep duration among these groups, may thus also indirectly raise measures of achievement.

Executive functions, which begin developing in early childhood, are necessary for the tasks of daily life, such as decision making and planning. Despite their early development, often without teaching, many teens with disabilities need explicit instruction to acquire and apply executive functions each day. Gaps in executive functions directly impact a teens ability to achieve post-secondary success, as executive functions support planning, goal setting, and organization. This article provides instruction on how to support teens with disabilities on three executive functions: (a) building habits that form routines, (b) utilizing sensory reminders to manage time, and (c) applying a planning tool. This article also instructs teachers on embedding executive function instruction within transition planning for individualized education programs.

Research Findings: Early childhood is a critical period for the development of eating behaviors and novel approaches are needed to promote healthy food acceptance among preschoolers. This pilot study examined the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of a 6-week mindful eating and yoga intervention targeting children's self-regulation of eating and behavior and sought to identify associations between executive function (EF) and child eating behaviors. Forty-three children (3-5 years old) participated in this quasi-experimental pretest/posttest design with 24 children in the intervention group and 19 in the comparison group. All children participated in direct assessments of inhibitory control and energy self-regulation; parents reported on children's EF and eating behaviors. Fidelity logs showed that the curriculum lessons were implemented as expected, although there were unanticipated issues with child attendance and engagement. Intervention participants demonstrated significant increases in inhibitory control, with greater effects among children who scored lower at pretest. Intervention effects were not found for other measures. Parent-report data indicated significant correlations between facets of EF and eating behaviors. Practice or Policy: Preliminary findings demonstrate that mindfulness-based interventions have potential to promote children's behavioral self-regulation. Additional research is needed to understand how these programs can be expanded to impact child eating behaviors.

Integrated writing (i.e., writing from sources) being a complex process, requires various linguistic and cognitive skills interacting with each other in a dynamic way. While recent studies have increasingly documented that writing processes are driven by a suite of cognitive abilities named executive function (EF), their roles in a literacy activity as complex as integrated writing remain underexplored. To address this core issue, the present study aimed to examine the direct and indirect effects of EF skills on students' performance of a Chinese listening-reading-writing task. A total of 135 Chinese undergraduates were involved, completing a battery of tests, including a computerized Chinese integrated writing task measuring their writing performance and five EF tasks measuring inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory (auditory-verbal and visual-spatial), and planning skills respectively. Students' integration activities were also recorded using a writing webpage. The path model indicated that inhibition, visual-spatial working memory, and planning skills could significantly and directly predict students' writing performance and the visual-spatial working memory could indirectly predict writing performance via the mediation of source-text switches while listening. This study offers new preliminary insights into the association between EF and integrated writing among Chinese undergraduates; pedagogical implications for the teaching of integrated writing are also discussed.

This study examined whether the assessment of executive function (EF) added a unique contribution to second language (L2) reading comprehension in children in French immersion. Participants were 8- to 9-year old children who completed a collection of measures assessing French reading (i.e., word reading, decoding, and reading comprehension ) and EF (working memory, inhibition, and shifting). After controlling for word-level reading, measures of shifting explained the most variance in reading comprehension compared to the variance accounted for by working memory and inhibition. The results add to the growing evidence of EF's contribution--especially shifting--to reading comprehension within the context of early literacy learning in the L2.

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) characteristically experience academic difficulties. There is growing evidence that the continuum from academic competence to underachievement is partially explained by executive function (EF; neurocognitive attention-regulation processes) and stress. Yet, there is scarce research investigating these relationships among students with or at risk for EBD, especially during the elevated stress and risk period of middle school, and particularly among racially/ethnically under-represented groups. Therefore, with 118 U.S. middle schoolers with or at risk for EBD and typical peers (70% Hispanic/Latinx; 25% Black), we examined group differences and relationships among perceived family, peer, and school stress, EF, and academic outcomes. When compared with their typical peers, students with or at risk for EBD scored lower on EF and academic tasks. For all students, higher EF predicted better academic functioning. Perceived stress was directly and negatively related with EF and indirectly associated with academic outcomes via EF.

Executive function (EF) is critical to students' academic behaviors and well-being. Environmental influences, particularly teacher-student interaction (TSI), play a key role in enhancing EF development. Previous studies have linked TSI quality to children's EF, yet the relationships between subdimensions of TSI--such as closeness, conflict, dependency, emotional support, classroom management, and instructional support--and EF outcomes remain unclear. Moreover, it is unclear whether these relations hold true across different cultural contexts. From an initial pool of 14,915 articles, in this meta-analysis, we considered 84 empirical studies across 18 cultural regions, revealing that TSI subdimensions are consistently related to EF with small-to-medium effect sizes. The analysis also identified statistically significant moderating factors, such as individualism, power distance, EF type, EF instrument, and socioeconomic status. Notably, stronger TSI-EF correlations were found among children from cultures with low-individualism and high-power-distance, as well as among children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. These patterns were particularly pronounced in studies measuring hot EF through adult-reported data. This comprehensive meta-analysis bridges knowledge gaps in TSI-EF dynamics, and supporting theories, such as attachment theory, social learning theory, and socio-cultural theory within educational settings. Crucially, it provides cross-cultural perspectives showing how cultural and contextual factors may intertwine with TSI-EF interactions.

Research Findings: There are sparse data on children's use of executive function (EF) and spatial skills in block play. However, there are important implications for studying EF and spatial skills with blocks across cultures, especially regarding best practices for supporting social-cognitive development in under-resourced populations and consideration of culturally unique customs and practices. Therefore, the current study compared EF-based skills and spatial block building behaviors in Canadian and Tzotzil Maya children. Participants included 82 preschoolers (55% Canadian) ages 48-59 months (M age = 54.37 months, SD = 3.37) observed and coded during a group block play session with peers. Controlling for demographic covariates, a composite EF-based variable including six behaviors (intentional selection of blocks, taking time, response inhibition, replacing/moving blocks, stabilizing, aligning) was significantly and positively associated with spatial configurations in block structures (symmetry, [beta] = 0.34; tiered orientation, [beta] = 0.37). The associations did not vary by culture. Practice or Policy: Results provide new knowledge about use of EF-based skills and spatial skills in an ecologically valid context and implications for cross-cultural measurement and practice.

Children with dyslexia frequently also struggle with math. However, studies of reading disability (RD) rarely assess math skill, and the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying co-occurring reading and math disability (RD+MD) are not clear. The current study aimed to identify behavioral and neurocognitive factors associated with co-occurring MD among 86 children with RD. Within this sample, 43% had co-occurring RD+MD and 22% demonstrated a possible vulnerability in math, while 35% had no math difficulties (RD-Only). We investigated whether RD-Only and RD+MD students differed behaviorally in their phonological awareness, reading skills, or executive functions, as well as in the brain mechanisms underlying word reading and visuospatial working memory using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The RD+MD group did not differ from RD-Only on behavioral or brain measures of phonological awareness related to speech or print. However, the RD+MD group demonstrated significantly worse working memory and processing speed performance than the RD-Only group. The RD+MD group also exhibited reduced brain activations for visuospatial working memory relative to RD-Only. Exploratory brain-behavior correlations along a broad spectrum of math ability revealed that stronger math skills were associated with greater activation in bilateral visual cortex. These converging neuro-behavioral findings suggest that poor executive functions in general, including differences in visuospatial working memory, are specifically associated with co-occurring MD in the context of RD.

Research Findings: Prior research has demonstrated the importance of young children's executive functioning (EF) skills for their success in schooling and beyond. However, the field lacks an understanding of how children's EF skills manifest in context. In the present study, we relate children's classroom off-task behavior to their EF skills. Prekindergarten children (N=263) were first assessed on their EF skills via direct assessments and a teacher report, and then they were observed on the amount of time spent off-task across classroom contexts like small-group instruction, whole-class instruction, independent work, transitions, and center time. Children's off-task behavior was weakly correlated with their directly assessed EF skills and moderately correlated with teacher reports of EF. The strength of associations was strongest for children's off-task behavior during whole-class instruction and transitions. Off-task behavior during whole-class instruction and transitions had the most within-classroom variation compared to other classroom settings, and off-task behavior during transitions most strongly predicted gains in math skills. Practice and Policy: Our study suggests that although direct EF assessments are the most predictive of children's academic achievement gains, it is beneficial to identify when children are going off-task and when this behavior is driven more by differences between children or classrooms.

There is a vast literature on "executive functioning," or the control of one's thoughts and actions in pursuit of a goal. This broad construct is conceptualized as comprising multiple executive functions (EFs) that support academic achievement and other important life outcomes. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding what, exactly, these core EFs are. This commentary briefly reviews a few dominant models of EFs in developmental and cognitive psychology and outlines issues to be addressed; it then illustrates how insights from neuroscience could help us eliminate redundant terminology and identify EFs that have been largely overlooked. Reaching a consensus regarding the core set of EFs will inform efforts to scaffold EF development and improve educational outcomes.

Although it has been found that autistic children exhibit delays in executive function abilities and atypical patterns of attention, less is known about the relationship between executive function and attention abilities and social and language skills in early childhood. In this study, 180 autistic children, age 2-8 years, participated in a study examining the relationship between executive function abilities, measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, and assessments of sustained attention measured via eye-tracking and several language and social communication measures. Results revealed that children with higher caregiver-reported executive function skills, specifically, working memory and planning/organization abilities, demonstrated higher levels of caregiver-reported receptive-expressive social communication abilities measured via the Pervasive Developmental Disorder Behavior Inventory. Higher executive function abilities across all domains were associated with lower levels of social pragmatic problems. Children who were able to sustain their attention for a longer duration demonstrated higher expressive language abilities. These results suggest that executive function and attention skills may play an important role in multiple domains of functioning in autistic children. It will be useful to determine whether therapies that seek to improve executive function skills in autistic individuals also positively influence their social/communication and language abilities.

The present study aims to examine the Executive Function (EF) skills of preschool-aged children who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH), and explore the variables related to their EF skills. Thirty preschoolers who were DHH and an additional 35 preschoolers with typical hearing were recruited. All DHH use spoken language as their communication mode, and wore hearing devices. Results revealed that preschoolers who are DHH are delayed in some EF skills, particularly inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Interestingly, in working memory, they exhibit age-appropriate verbal working memory, whereas they do not have an advantage over their hearing peers in visual-spatial working memory. Correlational results showed that working memory is related to language skills, while inhibitory control is related to the age of auditory exposure and early intervention. Thus, the results highlight the importance of early auditory exposure and early intervention, as well as language, in EF development in preschoolers who are DHH.

In recent years awareness of the importance of executive function (EF) skills for students' academic growth has increased. Research suggests that experience in school promotes EF development; however, recommendations regarding evidence-based practices that educators can use to support EF in their classrooms are limited. Here we outline two main reasons that this may be the case. First, there are significant challenges in the measurement of EF, which have implications for our understanding of how children use EF skills in support of learning in the moment and in real-world settings like the classroom. Second, there is limited direct research on the types of classroom experiences that promote EF. In describing both, we highlight emerging evidence and new methods that are helping us better understand the development of EF and the ways in which school experiences shape this growth, which will ultimately inform the development of school-based strategies to promote these skills.

This research aimed to 1) study the level of self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function of undergraduate students, 2) study the relationship among self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function of undergraduate students, and 3) investigate the effect of self-efficacy, self-awareness, and social skills on executive function in undergraduate students. The sample used in the study was 400 undergraduate students from Mahasarakham University in the academic year 2021, selected by multi-stage random sampling. The research instruments included four questionnaires including self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function questionnaire. The statistics used in the data analysis were percentage, mean (M), standard deviation (S.D.), and multiple regression analysis. The results revealed that 1) students' self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function, in general, were at a very high level. 2) There were statistically significant at the 0.01 level correlations between students' self-efficacy, self-awareness, social skills, and executive function. 3) Students' self-efficacy (SELE), self-awareness (SELA), and social skills (SOCS) affected executive function, with a prediction of 70.20%.

Literacy ability is an individual's ability to reason, formulate, solve, and interpret mathematically to solve problems related to daily life. Executive function is a cognitive aspect that has a relation with mathematical literacy. One of some aspects that affects the low mathematical literacy ability is the aspect of executive function. This study aims to investigate the characteristics of mathematical literacy based on the executive function aspects of 15 years old students. A qualitative method with a descriptive approach is employed in this study. The present research applies interview guidelines, questionnaires, and students' mathematical literacy tests as the instruments. Research subjects are junior high school students in grade VIII from two different schools. The result shows that the students' executive function influences mathematical literacy ability. Students' mathematical literacy ability is not fully achieved by fulfilling all the indicators involved. Another aspect found in the research is the low critical thinking ability impacts the achievement of mathematical literacy ability indicators.