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The evidential value of an mtDNA match between biological remains and their potential donor is determined by the random match probability of the haplotype. This probability is based on the haplotype’s population frequency estimate. Consequently, implementing a population study representative of the population relevant to a forensic case is vital to correctly evaluating the evidence. The emerging number of poaching cases and the limited availability of such data emphasizes the need for an improved fallow deer mtDNA population databank for forensic purposes, including targeting the entire mitochondrial control region. By sequencing a 945-base-pair-long segment of the mitochondrial control region in 138 animals from five populations in Hungary, we found four different haplotypes, including one which had not yet been described. Our results, supplemented with data already available from previous research, do not support the possibility of determining the population of origin, although some patterns of geographical separation can be distinguished. Estimates of molecular diversity indicate similarly low mtDNA diversity (Hd = 0.565 and π = 0.002) compared to data from other countries. The calculated random match probability of 0.547 shows a high probability of coincidence and, therefore, a limited capacity for exclusion. Our results indicate that despite the overall low genetic diversity of mtDNA within the Hungarian fallow deer samples, a pattern of differentiation among the regions is present, which can have relevance from a forensic point of view.

Wildlife crime suffers from low prosecution and conviction rates, with a lack of evidence and resources cited as hurdles to enforcement. Forensic evidence is used in human-on-human crimes to identify perpetrators and link individuals to criminal activity. Forensics approaches in the context of wildlife crime are heavily focused on non-human evidence using DNA barcoding to establish species and geographical origins. In human-on-human crime fingermarks and DNA profiling are two of the most recognisable forensic evidence types, both with significant global infrastructure, which contribute to prosecutions and convictions. Wildlife products can be the only physical evidence type available in a wildlife crime but attempts to recover human forensic evidence from them is a relatively unexplored area. The research that does exist demonstrates fingermark and touch DNA evidence can be collected in many contexts from several different species. Despite this there has been only one report of utilisation of this type human evidence recovery in wildlife case work. Failure to consider all potential evidence types has a negative impact on wildlife crime investigations. There is a need to experimentally assess the benefits and limitations associated with the collection of human evidence from wildlife items. This article introduces key factors that affect the recovery of human fingermarks and touch DNA evidence before focussing on the limited number of instances where these methods have been applied to wildlife forensic research and what considerations should be taken when developing further work in this field.

Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT) is among the most lucrative illegal industries in the world. Its consequences go far beyond direct effects on the species in trade. In this review, we outline the basics of IWT and discuss its cascading consequences on environments, human lives and communities, national stability, and the economy. In addition, we outline structures used in IWT, from subsistence and local use to more complicated configurations, which can include multiple players. Furthermore, while a small fraction of poaching is opportunistic, most of the international IWT is run by organised crime groups. We outline how IWT can be associated with many different crimes like drug trafficking, corruption, or whitewashing. Additionally, many studies have observed a rapidly increasing trend of online trade with endangered and protected species. Moreover, this review gives a short overview of the situation in the European Union (EU) regarding laws and implementation of CITES and highlights that the EU acts as a major source, transit hub, and consumer in IWT. To address the highly dynamic and complicated problem of IWT, research, knowledge exchange, funding, and collaborations in all fields are necessary.

Illegal wildlife trade is currently on the rise, and it is becoming one of the most lucrative crime sectors. The rarer the species, the higher the demand. Wildlife trade falls under international regulations, such as the CITES convention. Proving that this convention has been violated is a complex process and can be very difficult to do. DNA analysis methods remain (in many cases) the only way to determine whether a certain specimen originated from a protected animal species, a specific individual, or a species in which it is legal to trade. Tanned animal hides are a specific type of specimen. With this type of biological material, obtaining amplifiable DNA is often difficult. This pilot study aimed to map the effect of the chemicals used in the tanning process on the degradation of the DNA yielded from such samples. The DNA was quantified using two different approaches: qPCR and Qubit fluorometry. The degree of DNA fragmentation was assessed by determining the degradation index. The results indicate that reagents containing chromium have the greatest influence on DNA degradation. However, by using the presented protocol, enough amplifiable DNA can be obtained from hides treated with aluminum-based reagents.

To evaluate the online presence of wildlife crime and the public’s reaction to these crimes, we collected data on species, locations, animal status, and motives of wildlife crime depicted on nine Pakistani Facebook pages and eight groups from January 2016 to May 2021. We categorized reactions to images depicting birds, mammals, and reptiles and applied generalized linear models to the total number of reactions on posts. In 594 relevant posts, we identified 10,644 animals of 138 species. Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) had the highest number of posts, followed by Grey Francolin (Ortygornis pondicerianus) and Black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus). The number of posts has generally increased, particularly after the Covid-19 lockdown in March 2020. Almost 66 % of the posts showed animals being killed, 27 % were captured with no visible signs of torture, and the rest showed visible signs of torture in captivity. The most common reason for wildlife crimes was illegal hunting, followed by fear and illegal trade. Most victims of illegal hunting were birds, while reptiles were predominantly killed for fear. However, illegal trade was affecting all three classes of animals. Killed or tortured animals received more reactions than non-tortured animals, as well as more comments both against and in favor of the crime. Crimes against reptiles received more pro-crime comments than birds and mammals. Our results reflect the importance of social media to monitor wildlife crimes. Urgent actions are necessary by the relevant authorities to improve management and strengthen the response of law enforcement to wildlife crime.

The causal relationship between human interference in both climate change and decrease in biodiversity is unquestionable. This fact supports the need to act effectively against those illegal activities affecting wildlife. Hungary is also involved in wildlife crimes, but there is a noticeable deficit in the processes of uncovering these actions, gathering proof and punishing those responsible. In this study the Authors examine what role forensics may play in the fight against wildlife crime. Aim: Present the characteristics of wildlife crimes and outline the main features of wildlife forensics. Methodology: The current national and international legal background and norms and guidelines for professional conduct are surveyed. The Authors also reviewed the most important relevant Hungarian and international scientific literature. Findings: One of the most important and vital tasks of modern civilization is the preservation and protection of the environment – with an emphasis on life on Earth. As part of this process there is a place for law enforcement to detect, punish and prevent further criminal activity connected with illegal activities involving wildlife. In Hungary the major barriers to effective punishment of those responsible for wildlife crimes are primarily: the lack of forensic technicians with sufficient specialized knowledge and practice; missing specialized standard operational protocols; insufficient knowledge of biology within law enforcement; insufficient funding of non-human genetic laboratories and the lack of adequate non-human (genetic) databases. Value: For the first time in Hungary, the Authors outline the basic characteristics of wildlife forensics.

IntroductionDespite growing environmental awareness and the efforts of a variety of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) to influence the wildlife protection policy agenda, wildlife laws remain outside the remit of mainstream criminal justice. Adopting a green criminological perspective, this article considers wildlife crime in respect of threats to UK marine wildlife. It examines the UK’s legal and enforcement framework and the scope and nature of both marine wildlife crime and harms to marine wildlife. Its core question is to consider the extent to which the UK’s wildlife law approach provides for effective wildlife protection and is adequate to deal with the threats facing marine wildlife.MethodsThe research is a mixed methods study that considers the relevant law, case law and reporting of wildlife crimes as well as the enforcement approach to marine wildlife crime. The article’s methodological approach is socio-legal in nature commencing with a review of the relevant literature on threats to marine wildlife and incorporating analysis of the current law and case law available via the legal databases BAILII and Westlaw. The study also conducted an analysis of licences for disturbance of marine wildlife via an examination of the open access case management database managed by the Marine Management Organisation (MMO) the main enforcement body for marine wildlife incidents in the UK.ResultsThe research identifies that while in principle the UK has robust legal protection for marine wildlife, in practice, policy allows exploitation and disturbance of marine wildlife that causes harm to individual animals and is detrimental to efforts to conserve marine wildlife and marine ecosystems.DiscussionThis research concludes that in the UK, potentially strong legislation existing on paper is arguably not backed by an effective enforcement regime. The remote nature of marine wildlife incidents, competition between marine wildlife and leisure and commercial activities and the very wording of legislation all create enforcement challenges. This article argues for marine wildlife crime to be integrated into mainstream crime policy linked to other forms of offending and criminal justice policy, rather than being largely seen as a purely environmental issue and a ‘fringe’ area of policing.

Abstract To contain transmission of COVID‐19, lockdowns or strict restrictions of people's mobility outside their residences were instituted in a majority of countries worldwide, including Nepal, where the first phase of nationwide lockdown was observed from 24 March to 21 July 2020. This sudden halt in human outdoor activities brought positive and negative impacts on forests and wildlife. We undertook a study to learn the impact of the COVID‐19 lockdown on wildlife and forests in the protected areas (PAs) of Nepal. Between July and September 2020, data on illegal activities recorded by the staff of PAs and also those reported by media were collected and analyzed. Key informant interviews (KII) were done with the park officers and security personnel by virtual communication (telephone, messenger app, and video call) to collect detailed information and for corroboration. The collected data were categorized into four groups: (a) wildlife killed, (b) wildlife injured, (c) arrest incidents related to forest crime, and (d) arrest incidents related to wildlife crime. Data from the fiscal year 2019–2020 were analyzed, comparing before lockdown and after. Among 20 PAs investigated during the lockdown, the study found substantial increases in wildlife death in two PAs, Banke National Park, and Bardia National Park. Similarly, Chitwan National Park (CNP) and Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP) witnessed a rise in wildlife poaching. CNP and SNNP are located close to densely populated cities and also have human settlements in their peripheries. Wildlife was sighted freely roaming inside PAs during the lockdown, presumably because the absence of visitors and human activities during the lockdown decreased disturbance. Thus, the wildlife was enjoying the freedom of movement on the one hand, and on the other hand was threatened by poachers, many of whom were laid off from other activities and were taking advantage of the lapse in security.

Multiple demographic factors can affect ranger experiences and perceptions of their work, including factors like gender, age, and income. Similarly, whether a ranger is local to their conservation area might influence their experiences and perceptions of the work. This premise, however, has received limited attention. In this study we use survey data from across 11 countries to explore how being local to a conservation area might affect ranger experiences and perceptions. We define local rangers as originally being from within 20km of their conservation area. Our findings suggest that being local corresponds to more positive relations with local communities. Our results also imply that whilst being a local ranger might not directly affect job satisfaction, local rangers may well enjoy higher job satisfaction because of how they tend to differ from non-local rangers in other characteristics (e.g., lower formal education; greater access to familial support; more amicable community relations). Moreover, our findings indicate that non-local rangers tend to experience certain symptoms associated with a challenging job (e.g., feeling worn out and emotionally exhausted) more regularly than local rangers, which might correspond to lower welfare. In all, our findings indicate that further, more in-depth research into how the perceptions and experiences of local versus non-local rangers might differ could be useful. Examining the links between being a local ranger and community relations might be especially valuable.

Abstract Poaching is the most direct threat to the persistence of Amur tigers. However, little empirical evidence exists about the modus operandi of the offenders associated with this wildlife crime. Crime science can aid conservation efforts by identifying the patterns and opportunity structures that facilitate poaching. By employing semi-structured interviews and participants observation with those directly involved in the poaching and trafficking of Amur tigers in the Russian Far East (RFE), this article utilizes crime script analysis to break down this criminal event into a process of sequential acts. By using this framework, it is possible account for the decisions made and actions taken by offenders before, during and after a tiger poaching event, with the goal of identifying weak points in the chain of actions to develop targeted intervention strategies. Findings indicate poaching is facilitated by the ability to acquire a firearm, presence of roads that enable access to remote forest regions, availability of specific types of tools/equipment, including heat vision googles or a spotlight and a 4 × 4 car, and a culture that fosters corruption. This crime script analysis elucidates possible intervention points, which are discussed alongside each step in the poaching process.

The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is an Afro-Palearctic migrant whose populations have declined by 79% from 1980 to 2014. In 2018, the International Single Species Action Plan for the Turtle Dove (ISSAP) was developed with the goal of enabling, by 2028, an increase in turtle dove numbers along each of the three migration flyways (western, central, eastern). To achieve this, the illegal killing of turtle doves, a critical threat to the species, has to be eradicated. The Ionian Islands off the west coast of Greece lie on the eastern flyway and are considered a major turtle dove poaching hot-spot during spring migration. Quantifying wildlife crime, however, is challenging. In the absence of a reliable protocol for monitoring spring poaching levels, the agencies tasked with tackling the problem have no means of assessing the effectiveness of the anti-poaching measures and adapting them if required. Using passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) methods, we recorded gun hunting intensity at known turtle dove poaching sites during the 2019–2022 spring migrations (2–10 sites/season) with unprecedented spatial and temporal resolution. Based on published gunshot to killed/injured bird ratio for similar species (corroborated with discussions with local hunters) and an estimate of the proportion of hunting sites monitored by our PAM grid (using gunshot detection range estimates from control gunshots), we estimated that in 2021, up to 57,095 turtle doves were killed or injured across five Ionian Islands (Zakynthos, Paxi, Antipaxi, Othoni, and Mathraki). The 2022 estimate was almost half, but it is unclear as to whether the change is due to a decline in poachers or turtle doves. We propose ways of improving confidence in future estimates, and call for a temporary moratorium of autumn turtle dove hunting in Greece—as per ISSAP recommendation—until spring poaching is eradicated and the eastern flyway population shows signs of a full recovery. Finally, we hope our findings will pave the way for the development of PAM grids at turtle dove poaching hot-spots across all migration flyways, contributing to the global conservation of the species.

Abstract Poaching and illegal trade are primary threats to tigers (Panthera tigris). Trade in tiger parts has been well documented in Asia. However, little is known about tiger parts entering the United States (US). We analyzed seizures of tiger parts trafficked through US ports of entry from 2003 to 2012 along with shipments that had been issued legal Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species import permits. We found 292 seizure incidents and 283 permitted imports over that 10‐year period. The amount of tiger parts trafficked into the US illegally was larger than what has been previously reported. Most tiger parts entered the US legally and illegally for personal purposes; 81.8% of seized items were medicinal products. San Francisco, Dallas, and Atlanta were entry hotspots for illegal tiger imports which mainly entered the United States from China and Vietnam. Of the 65.8% of seized parts with a known origin, 99.5% originated from wild tigers. Since country of origin and source of many legally and illegally traded tiger parts was unknown, we recommend the use of forensic DNA analysis to address these knowledge gaps to focus conservation and enforcement efforts. Research should continue in the United States to adequately capture the global supply, demand, and trade of tiger parts.

Abstract Wildlife crimes committed by corporations cannot be charged with Act No. 5 of 1990 concerning The Conservation of Biodiversity and Its Ecosystem, because this Act does not regulate it. This research is a normative study by examining crimes that are formulated in laws whose mode is reasonably suspected of involving corporations. Crimes committed by corporations will have a major impact on the balance of the ecosystem, so it is very important to accommodate corporate criminal liability in a special law on conservation. The regulation of corporate criminal liability includes who is called a corporation, who can be sentenced to crime, what types of sanctions are appropriate for the corporation so that it will have a deterrent effect Intisari Kejahatan satwa liar yang dilakukan oleh korporasi tidak dapat dijerat dengan Undang-Undang No. 5 Tahun 1990 tentang Konservasi Keanekaragaman Hayati dan Ekosistemnya (UUKH), karena UUKH tidak mengaturnya. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian normative dengan mengkaji kejahatan yang dirumuskan dalam undang-undang yang modusnya patut diduga melibatkan korporasi. Kejahatan yang dilakukan korporasi akan menimbulkan dampak yang besar terhadap keseimbangan ekosistem, sehingga sangatlah penting untuk mengakomodasi pertanggungjawaban pidana korporasi dalam sebuah undang-undang khusus mengenai konservasi. Pengaturan pertanggungjawaban pidana korporasi meliputi siapa yang disebut sebagai korporasi, siapa saja yang dapat dijatuhi pidana, jenis sanksi apa yang tepat untuk korporasi sehingga akan menimbulkan efek jera.

The intensified illegal trade of wildlife has contributed to the unsustainable decline of wildlife populations, the de-stabilization of ecosystems, and threatens economic development and human security. Though often lacking empirical evidence, convergence theory has emerged recently as a topic of interest among researchers, practitioners, and the media to explain the growing overlap of criminal activities in an increasingly globalized world. In this paper, I explain the interdisciplinary theoretical foundations for the interconnectivity of criminal networks, including connections between illegal wildlife trade networks and non-state armed groups. I also outline and discuss various perspectives on the convergence of the illegal wildlife trade with other organized crime activities. I conclude by highlighting the urgent need for a better understanding of the role of the organized criminal groups involved in the illegal wildlife trade, and of how these groups converge with other types of criminal activities. The policy implications of filling in this knowledge gap are twofold: firstly, understanding how criminal networks converge can facilitate the implementation of more effective law enforcement and investigations that target high-profile offenders, as opposed to focusing on low-level poachers; and secondly, this understanding can foster more cooperation across agencies and jurisdictions to address multiple crime types and crime in convergence settings.

The gender dimensions of wildlife trafficking remain understudied even though the problem is of great socio-environmental significance. Data about the roles of women in wildlife trafficking offer critically needed indicators that can contribute to building evidence and setting targets for, and monitoring progress of, sustainable and equitable futures. We set three objectives for this research filling a major gap in conservation knowledge: (1) explore expert perceptions of primary roles that women may play in wildlife trafficking, (2) explore expert perceptions of secondary roles that women may play in wildlife trafficking, and (3) explore variability in roles for women in wildlife trafficking. We used an online survey to conduct expert elicitation in February 2020 to achieve objectives. Experts (N = 215) identified key assumptions associated with six primary and 32 secondary roles for women in wildlife trafficking. Results highlight the impacts of wildlife trafficking manifest in varied contexts across society, including persons harmed at local levels such as family members in general, widows and orphans. The perceived roles of women in the wildlife trafficking networks may be factored into transformative solutions to help combat wildlife trafficking and data from expert elicitation can inform future hypotheses and inferences on this topic of broad socio-environmental significance.

The unprecedented global scale of illegal wildlife trade poses threats to humans and ecosystems. Policies calling for increased enforcement to control illicit trade are rooted in the idea that more enforcement will result in greater deterrence, but as yet it is unclear how the illegal wildlife supply chain responds to enforcement actions. To evaluate the impact of formal or informal deterrence, it may be pertinent to consider strategies used by illicit networks to avoid sanction threats. Using an exploratory case study on urban wild meat trade (Republic of Congo), we describe some of the strategies used to avoid detection and consider how the concept of restrictive deterrence can be used to advance our understanding of the broader impacts of sanction threats on offender decision-making in illegal wildlife supply chains.

Concomitant with an increase in the global illegal wildlife trade has been a substantial increase in research within traditional conservation-based sciences and conservation and green criminology. While the integration of criminological theories and methods into the wildlife conservation context has advanced our understanding of and practical responses to illegal wildlife trade, there remain discrepancies between the number of empirical vs. conceptual studies and a disproportionate focus on a few select theories, geographical contexts, and taxonomic groups. We present three understudied or novel applications of criminology and criminal justice research within the fields of fisheries, forestry, and wildlife conservation. First, we highlight criminological research on the application of corruption prevention in combating the illegal wildlife trade. Corruption has increasingly been getting attention from the non-governmental sector; however, there has been limited research aimed at understanding institutional opportunity structures, local conceptualizations of corruption, and the corresponding prevention strategies within conservation contexts. Second, we discuss the pre-emptive application of compliance theories when designing and monitoring Community-Based Conservation (CBC) programs such as community forestry, non-timber forest products, and community patrol programs. Applying opportunity theory and social development strategies are two suggestions to improve the effectiveness of CBCs in forestry and beyond. Finally, we present a discussion on recidivism (i.e., repeat offending) and non-instrumental or novel responses, utilizing illegal fishing as a case study. We present two alternative methods to traditional forms of punishment: restorative justice and community-based approaches. Lastly, we will present a diversity of priority research agendas within each of these topics.

Abstract Wildlife crime is an international issue with the illicit trade of flora and fauna estimated to be worth several billion dollars. In national parks, the problem can often be summarised as an arms race, with poachers trying to remain undetected by park rangers and other security personnel that are trying to protect the natural habitat and species from exploitation. Within this context, the detection of wire snares is a critical step. Not only can it reduce the number of animals caught by poachers but it can also help rangers develop better situation awareness and, in turn, improve patrolling strategies. To address the practical challenge of wire-snare detection across wide areas, this article examines the capacity of ground penetrating radar (GPR). Using two snares of small and medium sizes, the experiment confirmed the promising role of this technology, even if poachers attempt to conceal the snares underneath small tree branches and roots.

The poachers adopted various cunning ways to modify the wildlife materials before commercialization. Thus, the confiscated wildlife materials is often a crime with no eyewitness and difficult for identification. However, accurate identification of the seized wildlife samples is vital for species identification, detection of trade origin and better conservation management. The study employed DNA sequencing based identification of suspected wildlife materials, received from forest departments in east India. We adopted sufficient safety measures while dealing with the samples and processed the entire job at the in-house facilities in Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), Kolkata. Among 21 confiscated wildlife materials, most of them are identified by Cytb gene, while one specimen by COI gene, and one by both COI and Cytb. All the confiscated amorphous samples are accurately detected by sequence similarity search (99%–100%), estimated genetic divergence, and return monophyly using NJ phylogenetic analysis. The study detected the on-going illegal trade of five of east India’s most threatened animals, B. gaurus, N. nebulosa, R. unicornis, L. olivacea, and P. molurus. The study further identified the illegal hunting of mammals (S. scrofa, B. indicus, M. muntjak, A. axis), avifauna (G. leucolophus), and herpetofauna (N. naja) in the region. The study affirms the efficacy of DNA based identification tools for detection of wildlife crime and forensic sciences.

Wildlife trade is a major driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. To regulate its impact, laws and regulations have been implemented at the international and national scales. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has regulated the international legal trade since 1975. However, an important volume of illegal trade—mainly within countries—continues to threaten several vertebrate groups, which could be due to a lack of specific legislation or enforcement of existing regulations. Our aim was to gain a more accurate picture of poaching and legal possession of native parrots as pets in the Neotropics, where illegal domestic trade is currently widespread. We conducted a systematic search of the laws of each of the 50 countries and overseas territories, taking into account their year of implementation and whether the capture, possession and/or sale of parrots is permitted. We compared this information with legal exports reported by CITES to assess differences between the enforcement of international and national trade regulations. We found that only two countries (Guyana and Suriname) currently allow the capture, trade and possession of native parrots, while Peru allowed international legal trade until recently. The other countries have banned parrot trade from years to decades ago. However, the timing of implementation of international and national trade regulations varied greatly between countries, with half of them continuing to export parrots legally years or decades after banning domestic trade. The confusion created by this complex legal system may have hindered the adoption of conservation measures, allowing poaching, keeping and trade of protected species within and between neighboring countries. Most countries legally exported Neotropical parrot species which were not native to those countries, indicating that trans-border smuggling often occurred between neighboring countries prior to their legal exportations, and that this illicit activity continues for the domestic trade. Governments are urged to effectively implement current legislation that prohibits the trapping and domestic trade of native parrots, but also to develop coordinated alliances and efforts to halt illegal trade among them. Otherwise, illegal trade will continue to erode the already threatened populations of a large number of parrot species across the Neotropics.

We summarize and characterize the emerging role of Nigeria in transcontinental illegal pangolin shipments from Sub-Saharan Africa to Asia from 2012 to 2019 using public online news reports data. The findings indicate that 57 seizure incidents were predominantly pangolin scales as reported from the findings and the equivalent of 462,092 individual pangolins trafficked from Nigeria. Also, findings reveal that China and Vietnam constitute 65 % of pangolin incidents reported. A peak was reached in 2018 for pangolin incidents, and Nigeria also serves as a transit route to Cameroon. We concluded that Lagos plays a crucial role in pangolin shipments to Asia.

Wild vertebrate populations all over the globe are in decline, with poaching being the second-most-important cause. The high poaching rate of rhinoceros may drive these species into extinction within the coming decades. Some stakeholders argue to lift the ban on international rhino horn trade to potentially benefit rhino conservation, as current interventions appear to be insufficient. We reviewed scientific and grey literature to scrutinize the validity of reasoning behind the potential benefit of legal horn trade for wild rhino populations. We identified four mechanisms through which legal trade would impact wild rhino populations, of which only the increased revenue for rhino farmers could potentially benefit rhino conservation. Conversely, the global demand for rhino horn is likely to increase to a level that cannot be met solely by legal supply. Moreover, corruption is omnipresent in countries along the trade routes, which has the potential to negatively affect rhino conservation. Finally, programmes aimed at reducing rhino horn demand will be counteracted through trade legalization by removing the stigma on consuming rhino horn. Combining these insights and comparing them with criteria for sustainable wildlife farming, we conclude that legalizing rhino horn trade will likely negatively impact the remaining wild rhino populations. To preserve rhino species, we suggest to prioritize reducing corruption within rhino horn trade, increasing the rhino population within well-protected ’safe havens’ and implementing educational programmes and law enforcement targeted at rhino horn consumers.

Abstract The international legal trade in wildlife can provide economic and other benefits, but when unsustainable can be a driver of population declines. This impact is magnified by the additional burden of illegal trade, yet how it covaries with legal trade remains little explored. We combined law‐enforcement time‐series of seizures of wildlife goods imported into the United States (US) and the European Union (EU) with data on reported legal trade to evaluate the evidence for any relationships. Our analysis examined 28 US and 20 EU products derived from CITES‐listed species with high volume and frequency of both reported trade and seizures. On average, seizures added 28% and 9% to US and EU reported legal trade levels respectively, and in several cases exceeded legal imports. We detected a significant but weak overall positive relationship between seizure volumes and reported trade into the US over time, but not into the EU. These results highlight the importance of maintaining long‐term records of border seizures and enforcement effort, and accounting for illegal trade where possible in non‐detriment findings. Our findings suggest a complex and nuanced temporal association between the illegal and legal wildlife trades.

Abstract This study investigates illegal border crossings by rhino poachers into a fenced reserve in South Africa, comparing journeys to and after crime using a rational choice approach. Using various regression models, our analysis indicates poachers prefer to enter and exit the reserve near high rhino densities, while high road densities outside the reserve increase the odds of an illegal entry. The results also show that half of the incursions occurred at a single location, leading us to describe the special circumstances of this outlier. The study lays a foundation for understanding the location choices poachers make and presents a methodology that can be replicated in other reserves.

Intensifying global dynamics of wildlife crime are rapidly reshaping conservation politics, practices and geographies. Most pronounced are the manifold violent responses to wildlife crime, including direct lethal action and increasing anticipatory action to prevent these crimes from happening in the first place. This paper reflects on these dynamics in relation to recent literature that employs Foucault's concept of biopower to understand the governance of increasingly precarious human and non-human life. Building on Brian Massumi's exposition of ontopower – an 'environmental power' that “alters the life environment's conditions of emergence” – I explore whether we are seeing a move from bio- to ontopower where the imperative is less the construction of systemic forms of governmentality to ensure life's ‘optimisation’ than on processually pre-empting incipient tendencies towards unknown but certain future threats to life. Phrased differently, ontopower focuses on how to prevent nature's destruction in the future through pre-emptive measures in the present. Drawing on empirical research on violent responses to rhino poaching in South Africa, the paper argues that we are seeing the uneven emergence of new geographies of conservation based on ontopower. It concludes by speculating whether conservation's insecurity is turning into its pre-emptive other by making (green) war necessary for non-human life's survival.

Abstract Wildlife crime, including poaching and wildlife trafficking, threaten the existence of particular species. To date, research on wildlife crime has been primarily conducted by those with backgrounds in the biological sciences, however crime scientists, have much to offer in examining wildlife crimes. With this in mind, we aim to highlight general principals of crime science found through an in-depth review of the conservation literature. More specifically, to determine if, and how, different types of wildlife crimes cluster, to identify the existence of interventions for which the mechanisms mirror those found within SCP, and consider their effectiveness. Our review suggests that various types of wildlife crimes concentrate in time and space, among products, along certain routes, and at particular facilities. Further, some overlap exists between mechanisms used to mitigate more traditional crimes and those used to prevent wildlife crimes and protect threatened species. Of note are the attempts by those in the conservation community to increase the risk of crime, remove excuses for non-compliance of rules, and reduce provocations that contribute to particular types of wildlife crime. Given this overlap crime scientists may be able to collaborate with conservationists to draw on the extensive knowledge base of prevention studies to identify potential interventions, analyze their implementation, and evaluate the overall impact of an intervention.

Militarized responses to pastoralist conflict and wildlife crime in Kenya –including to the collapsing elephant and rhino populations – often fail to meet human rights standards and undermine local capacities for sustainability, peace and alternative livelihoods. Heavy-handed state suppression encourages extrajudicial violence and introduces new weapons that often enter the illicit market. This article outlines alternative approaches rooted in human rights, the rule of law and international cooperation and assistance, including the use of regional instruments regulating the trade in small arms and light weapons (SALW), including the 2013 Arms Trade Treaty (ATT). The article draws on fieldwork in Kenya and participant observation in advocacy on the ATT.

The international wildlife trade in allegedly “captive-bred” specimens has globally increased during recent years, while the legal origin of respective animals frequently remains doubtful. Worldwide, authorities experience strong challenges to effectively control the international trade in CITES-listed species and are struggling to uncover fraudulent claims of “captive-breeding”. Forensic analytical methods are being considered as potential tools to investigate wildlife crime. The present case study is the first of its kind in reptiles that investigates the application of δ13C and δ15N stable isotope ratios to discriminate between captive and wild crocodile lizards from Vietnam. The CITES-listed crocodile lizard Shinisaurus crocodilurus is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List mainly due to habitat loss and unsustainable exploitation for the international pet trade. Our results revealed significant differences in the composition of the two tested isotope systems between captive and wild individuals. Isotope values of skin samples from captive specimens were significantly enriched in 13C and 15N as compared to specimens from the wild. We also used the weighted k-Nearest Neighbor classifier to assign simulated samples back to their alleged place of origin and demonstrated that captive bred individuals could be distinguished with a high degree of accuracy from specimens that were not born in captivity. We conclude that isotope analysis appears to be highly attractive as a forensic tool to reduce laundering of wild caught lizards via breeding farms, but acknowledge that this potential might be limited to range restricted or ecologically specialist species.