Search

Highlights: • The research contributes to a better understanding of the forms of settlement in the ancient landscape of Alto de Toche, influenced by Cerro Machin Volcano disaster risk. • A terrain modelling reconstructed a geoarchaeological mountain landscape, composed of massive systems of terraces at Alto de Toche Wax Palm cloud forest. • From digital photogrammetry in fieldwork, three sites were detailed. A DEM of the settlement pattern projected 37 possible new terraces. The resulting map is accessible in an ArcGIS-online web application. Abstract: The enhancement of the archaeological terraces on the Alto de Toche and the Wax Palm forest is unprecedented. The Toche region in Colombia contains an outstanding anthropised ecosystems presence (8000 BP), characterised by complex inherited cultural patterns, according to the evidences on the eastern margin of the Andes Central Cordillera. The research focused on i) the cultural landscape of the Premontane and Montane Cloud Forests of the Alto de Toche, built by the Toches; ii) its high-altitude settlements, interpreted as a strategy of ecological knowledge, deeply linked to their symbolic understanding of the landscape. Fieldwork in three sets of tambos (terraces for habitational settlements) in La Carbonera, Gallego, and Las Cruces sites was analysed using remote sensing, drone digital photogrammetry, and on-site data. Their interpretation projected a settlement pattern; a typological-topological tambos classification inferred its possible functions such as sighting, funerary, and dwelling, from 2600 MASL to biggest sites at 3000 MASL, related to the sun-moon proximity presumed for gatherings. The authors conclude that the patterns respond to a territorial understanding of its resources and the vertical exploitation of the agricultural thermal floors and micro-watersheds, associated with the east-west solar illumination over both sides of the Tochecito River basin; linked with the transit between ridges and steep slopes, through the network of pathways that originated the Quindío Trail. Data were projected crossing field-data photogrammetry with GIS spatial analysis; this resulted in a terrain model that reconstructs a geoarchaeological landscape composed of massive systems of tambos. Thirty-seven new sites were classified, twenty of them above 2800 MASL. The resulting terrain model facilitates a non-invasive previous prospection for fieldwork planning and a more feasible knowledge of accessibility, due to on-site transit difficulties (steep slopes and very unstable soil due to cattle ranching). Finally, the terrain model was uploaded in an easy-to-access ArcGIS-online web application for sharing with community stakeholders and visiting scientists.

ABSTRACTPoint clouds are widely used in Earth surface research but usually exhibit gaps of missing data. Previous point cloud restoration methods used in terrain modelling have not fully considered complex terrain characteristics, which can be summarised as the controlling role of topographic features in shaping terrain surfaces and the inherent similarities observed among these surfaces. This work introduces a novel method that integrates Topographic Features and Patch Matching (TFPM) into point cloud restoration processes for terrain modelling. The method mainly contains three steps. First, identifying gap boundary points. Second, topographic feature points are extracted and subsequently interpolated into the identified gaps. Third, searching other parts of the raw point cloud for patches resembling the gaps, and the identified patches are used as templates to restore the point cloud. The proposed method is benchmarked against three state-of-the-art point cloud restoration methods. The experimental results demonstrate that the TFPM method consistently exhibits superior accuracy in terrain modelling and analysis, as evidenced by low values of the root mean square error, average elevation difference, and average slope difference. This work endeavours to incorporate topographic features into point cloud restoration processes and can benefit future research related to terrain modelling and analysis.

This research presents a comprehensive analysis of the production of terrain passability maps in southeastern Serbia, employing a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) analysis. The study integrates various geographical and infrastructural aspects, assigning coefficients to each input parameter, including rivers, roads, rails, CORINE Land Cover (CLC), soil, slope, and the Topographic Ruggedness Index (TRI). The introduction of the TRI marks an innovative advancement in terrain analysis and passability. By comparing wet and dry periods, the study provides critical insights into the dynamic nature of terrain passability, with implications for transportation planning and emergency response. The research's innovative approach and detailed examination set it apart, offering valuable contributions to scholarly comprehension and practical applications. The findings underscore the potential for interdisciplinary collaboration and the broad impact of geographic information systems (GIS) and terrain analysis in addressing real-world challenges. Future research may explore additional factors influencing terrain passability and expand the geographical scope of the study.

Geospatial data obtained using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs) are increasingly used to model the terrain in the coastal zone, in particular in shallow waterbodies (with a depth of up to 1 m). In order to generate a terrain relief, it is important to choose a method for modelling that will allow it to be accurately projected. Therefore, the aim of this article is to present a method for accuracy assessment of topo-bathymetric surface models based on geospatial data recorded by UAV and USV vehicles. Bathymetric and photogrammetric measurements were carried out on the waterbody adjacent to the public beach in Gdynia (Poland) in 2022 using a DJI Phantom 4 RTK UAV and an AutoDron USV. The geospatial data integration process was performed in the Surfer software. As a result, Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) in the coastal zone were developed using the following terrain modelling methods: Inverse Distance to a Power (IDP), Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), kriging, the Modified Shepard’s Method (MSM) and Natural Neighbour Interpolation (NNI). The conducted study does not clearly indicate any of the methods, as the selection of the method is also affected by the visualization of the generated model. However, having compared the accuracy measures of the charts and models obtained, it was concluded that for this type of data, the kriging (linear model) method was the best. Very good results were also obtained for the NNI method. The lowest value of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (0.030 m) and the lowest value of the Mean Absolute Error (MAE) (0.011 m) were noted for the GRID model interpolated with the kriging (linear model) method. Moreover, the NNI and kriging (linear model) methods obtained the highest coefficient of determination value (0.999). The NNI method has the lowest value of the R68 measure (0.009 m), while the lowest value of the R95 measure (0.033 m) was noted for the kriging (linear model) method.

Virtual globes render large-scale real-world earth’s surface in real-time for geographic information visualization. Modern GPUs have introduced hardware tessellation features for high-performance rendering. Patch-based terrain rendering using hardware tessellation introduces cracks and swimming artifacts during navigation. Hardware tessellation-based terrain rendering methods limit the tessellation factors to power-of-two and render patches with discrete-level-of-detail (DLOD). We present a novel method for adaptive terrain rendering using tessellation codes. In the proposed method, we present novel memory-efficient bit-field-based tessellation codes to encode patch Level-of-detail (LOD). The encoding scheme enabled patch rendering with Continuous-level-of-detail (CLOD) on tessellation hardware. The view-dependent simplification algorithm simplifies and encodes the patch’s Level-of-detail (LOD) in tessellation codes. The proposed method, based on tessellation codes, tessellates patches as uniformly spaced vertices grid. A novel relocation algorithm, based on tessellation codes, relocates uniformly spaced vertices to construct an encoded simplified vertices grid to avoid boundary cracks and swimming artifacts. The tessellation codes consumed 28 kilobytes of memory for a patch size of 65. The proposed method rendered 2.5 million triangles with a frame rate of 570 frames-per second for an ultra-HD display. The proposed method achieved a high simplification and rendering rate with low computational and memory usage as compared to state-of-the-art methods.

Geospatial data are increasingly used to model the terrain in the coastal zone, in particular in shallow waterbodies (with a depth of up to 1 m). In order to generate a terrain relief, it is important to choose a method for its modelling that will allow it to be accurately projected. Therefore, the aim of this publication is to analyze the terrain modelling methods in the coastal zone. For the purposes of the research, five most popular methods for terrain modelling were described: Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), Modified Shepard's Method (MSM), Natural Neighbor Interpolation (NNI), kriging and spline. Each of the methods has been described in a uniform way in terms of: the essence of its operation, mathematical expression and application examples. The advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods for terrain modelling are also discussed. It should be stated that the choice of the method for the terrain modelling of a shallow waterbody is not unambiguous, as it depends on the type of data recorded during bathymetric and photogrammetric measurements.

The coastal zone is an area that includes the sea coast and adjacent parts of the land and sea, where the mutual interaction of these environments is clearly marked. Hence, the modelling of the land and seabed parts of the coastal zone is crucial and necessary in order to determine the dynamic changes taking place in this area. The accurate determination of the terrain in the coastal zone is now possible thanks to the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Unmanned Surface Vehicles (USVs). The aim of this article is to present land and seabed surface modelling in the coastal zone using UAV/USV-based data integration. Bathymetric and photogrammetric measurements were carried out on the waterbody adjacent to a public beach in Gdynia (Poland) in 2022 using the DJI Phantom 4 Real Time Kinematic (RTK) UAV and the AutoDron USV. As a result of geospatial data integration, topo-bathymetric models in the coastal zone were developed using the following terrain-modelling methods: Inverse Distance to a Power (IDP), kriging, Modified Shepard’s Method (MSM) and Natural Neighbour Interpolation (NNI). Then, the accuracies of the selected models obtained using the different interpolation methods, taking into account the division into land and seabed parts, were analysed. Research has shown that the most accurate method for modelling both the land and seabed surfaces of the coastal zone is the kriging (linear model) method. The differences between the interpolated and measurement values of the R95 measurement are 0.032 m for the land part and 0.034 m for the seabed part. It should also be noted that the data interpolated by the kriging (linear model) method showed a very good fit to the measurement data recorded by the UAVs and USVs.

This study presents the effect of image data sources on the topographic modelling of part of the National Trust site located at Weston-Super-Mare, Bristol, United Kingdom, covering an approximate area of 1.82 hectares. The accuracy of the DEM generated from 1m resolution and 2m resolution LiDAR data together with the accuracy of the DEM generated from the UAV images acquired at different altitudes are analysed using the 1 m LiDAR DEM as reference for the accuracy assessment. Using the NSSDA methodology, the horizontal and vertical accuracy of the DEMs generated from each of the four sources were computed while the paired sample t-test was conducted to ascertain the existence of statistically significant difference between the means of the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the check points. The result obtained shows that with a RMSE of -0.0101499 and horizontal accuracy of -0.175674686m, the planimetric coordinates extracted from 2 m LiDAR DEM were more accurate than the planimetric coordinates extracted from the UAV based DEMs while the UAV based DEMs proved to be more accurate than the 2m LiDAR DEM in terms of altimetric coordinates, though the DEM generated from UAV images acquired at 50 m altitude gave the most accurate result when compared with the vertical accuracy obtained from the DEM generated from UAV images acquired at 30 m and 70 m flight heights. These findings are also consistent with the result of the statistical analysis at 95% confidence interval.

In this paper, we describe two related scripting methods of cartographic data processing and visualization that provide 2D and 3D mapping of Japan with different algorithm complexity. The first algorithm utilizes Generic Mapping Toolset (GMT), which is known as an advanced console-based program for spatial data processing. The modules of GMT combine the functionality of scripting with the aspects of geoinformatics, which is especially effective for the rapid analysis of large geospatial datasets, multi-format data processing, and mapping in 2D and 3D modes. The second algorithm presents the use of the R programming language for cartographic visualization and spatial analysis. This R method utilizes the packages ‘tmap’, ‘raster’, ‘maps’, and ‘mapdata’ to model the morphometric elements of the Japanese archipelago, such as slope, aspect, hillshade and elevation. The general purpose graphical package ‘ggplot2’ of R was used for mapping the prefectures of Japan. The two scripting approaches demonstrated an established correspondence between the programming languages and cartography determined with the use of scripts for data processing. They outperform several well-known and state-of-the-art GIS methods for mapping due to their high automation of data processing. Cartography has largely reflected recent advances in data science, the rapid development of scripting languages, and transfer in the approaches of data processing. This extends to the shift from the traditional GIS to programming languages. As a response to these new challenges, we demonstrated in this paper the advantages of using scripts in mapping, which consist of repeatability and the flexible applicability of scripts in similar works.

Wireless networks on university campuses has gained importance in recent years. These networks in major areas such as university campuses, are faced with many problems during the planning, design and establishment. These problems are among the first that comes to mind, the physical properties of the campus and is selected according to the characteristics of network equipment. There is no doubt at all points of a wireless network set up in order to provide uninterrupted service and quality of the signal is expected to be good. However, it should be understood literally cannot meet these expectations. Therefore, to solve many problems to campus planning and design can be made to have acceptable signal distribution will have the appropriate use of and satisfaction with increasing effect. In this study, due to the start of construction on the North Campus of Hitit University, wireless signal spread using the current spread has been determined with the help of geographic information systems visibility analysis. An area of 56 hectares, with the total of 9 AP the acceptable signal distribution was obtained.

In this contribution, we deal with the methodology of visualisation of terrain surface, on which experimental measurements of driving manoeuvres of an agricultural technological vehicle MT8-222 were performed. The introduced methodology uses a defined approach when determining the dynamic stability of agricultural vehicles following the standard STN 47 017. Records of the centre of gravity accelerations were obtained from driving manoeuvres at every instance of time during the drive. From records of accelerations and by using Euler‘s parameters with respect to the inertial system, there were evaluated contact points of the wheel with the terrain. Performed driving manoeuvres consisted of movement in the direction of down grade slope as well as in the direction of tractive movement on the slope. We created a model of terrain surface in the Surfer® program from obtained experimental data. Next, by using supporting commands in Matlab®, we created an algorithm for visualisation of terrain surface. Following this algorithm, there was created another model of terrain surface. Both visualisations of terrain surface are depicted in Figs 4 and 5.

Natural terrains created by long-term erosion processes can sometimes have spectacular forms and shapes. The visible form depends often upon internal geological structure and materials. One of the unique terrain artefacts occur in the form of table mountains and can be observed in the Monument Valley (Colorado Plateau, USA). In the following article a procedural method is considered for terrain modelling of structures, geometrically similar to the mesas and buttes hills. This method is not intended to simulate physically inspired erosion processes, but targets directly the generation of eroded forms. The results can be used as assets by artists and designers. The proposed terrain model is based on a height-field representation extended by materials and its hardness information. The starting point of the technique is the Poisson Faulting algorithm that was originally used to obtain fractional Brownian surfaces. In the modification, the step function as the fault line generator was replaced with a circular one. The obtained geometry was used for materials’ classification and the hardness part of the modelled terrain. The final model was achieved by the erosive modification of geometry according to the materials and its hardness data. The results are similar to the structures observed in nature and are achieved within an acceptable time for real-time interactions.

Erosion, which is one of the most important exogenous processes forming the landscape, has become a main degradation factor affecting agroecosystems. One of the direct erosion effects is a change in the soil cover structure. Colluvisols, originating in the material accumulated in depressions and foot part of slopes, represent a significant element in such a segmented soil mosaic. In the Chernozem loess area of Žďánický les, a method of areal delimitation of Colluvisols was proposed. Considering the homogeneity of the relative soil properties, the terrain morfometric characteristics (slope, profile curvature, and plan curvature) were applied as the main criteria. The final map reflects specifically the general zones of potential Colluvisol formation, such as lateral valleys and slope bases - floodplain interfaces. In the locality under study (size 3 ha), the microrelief evaluation of the colluvial process was proceeded particularly in a colluvial-alluvial zone. The results showed a significant difference between the soil properties of adjacent Colluvisol and Fluvisol resulting mainly from the distinct character of sedimentation.

In recent decades, terrain modelling and reconstruction techniques have increased research interest in precise short and long distance autonomous navigation, localisation and mapping within field robotics. One of the most challenging applications is in relation to autonomous planetary exploration using mobile robots. Rovers deployed to explore extraterrestrial surfaces are required to perceive and model the environment with little or no intervention from the ground station. Up to date, stereopsis represents the state-of-the art method and can achieve short-distance planetary surface modelling. However, future space missions will require scene reconstruction at greater distance, fidelity and feature complexity, potentially using other sensors like Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR). LIDAR has been extensively exploited for target detection, identification, and depth estimation in terrestrial robotics, but is still under development to become a viable technology for space robotics. This paper will first review current methods for scene reconstruction and terrain modelling using cameras in planetary robotics and LIDARs in terrestrial robotics; then we will propose camera-LIDAR fusion as a feasible technique to overcome the limitations of either of these individual sensors for planetary exploration. A comprehensive analysis will be presented to demonstrate the advantages of camera-LIDAR fusion in terms of range, fidelity, accuracy and computation.