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One of the means of help offered by the 19th century charity societies was finding employment for the poorest. Among their beneficiaries were also children, whose work was a substantial contribution to the finances of their families. The age limit in this case was 14 – above that age children from the poor families were sent to work (girls most often to service, and boys – to apprenticeship). Attempts were made to send them to recommended houses or craftsmen. One of the organizations which helped children to find employment was the Polish Ladies Charity Society in Poznan founded in 1845, whose activists conducted detailed interviews of families requesting help. The goal of the text is to analyze the situation of the poor minors who worked in Poznan. The source base for the following research were two Card Indexes: the alphabetic Card Index of proteges of the Polish Ladies Charity Society with Celestyna Działyńska’s hand notes regarding grants, and the Card Index of proteges of the TDDP, which was organized by districts and led by women reporting to Działyńska, auxiliary reports and private notes of the founder of the Society, Celestyna działyńska, were included. In the following qualitative and quantitative methods were used, combined with the case study approach. The members of the Poznań Charitable Societies, which functioned in the Middle of 19th century, not only organized workplaces for the minor, but also took care of their education and wellbeing. They paid special attention to the role of a child in their family and checked the circumstances when a child, if of an appropriate age for employment, didn’t go to work. In the large families, when the oldest children established their own households, the younger children could still work and contribute to the family’s finances.

This study aims to analyse how internal parental migration influences school participation and work for children aged 10–15 years in Indonesia as measured by four categories, namely, (a) children attending school, (b) working children, (c) children attending school and working and (d) children who do not attend school and do not work (idle). The method used in this study is a multinomial logit model, while the data used is from the 2015 Inter-Census Population Survey (SUPAS) provided by Indonesian Central Board of Statistics (BPS). The results show that parental internal migration generally leads to a reduction in school participation rates and an increase in work participation rates among the children of migrant parents. The impact is greater when the mother migrates. However, the negative impact of parental internal migration on children’s participation in education and child labour decreases as the duration of migration increases. In addition, this study also provides some important findings regarding the important aspects that can affect child school participation and work, including the quality of parents’ work after migration, parents’ education, child’s age, family size and family welfare, including the quality of the environment where the children live.

The brick industry, characterized as an informal and unorganized sector in India, has witnessed growth concurrent with urbanization across various states. This labor-intensive industry relies significantly on the widespread exploitation of women and children and heavily depends on migrant workers for production. This study aims to shed light on the current socio-economic conditions of women in the brick industries of Falta and Budge Budge-II C.D blocks in the South 24 Parganas District of Indian state West Bengal. The variables considered for this study encompass gender, age, marital status, nature of work, experience, education, income, benefits, and challenges —these factors serve as indicators of the socio-economic status of women in these manufacturing units. Environmentalists have identified the brick industry as one of the hazardous sectors with adverse implications for the health and physiological well-being of women and children. The present study is based on both primary and secondary data. The findings reveal that women in this field experience various forms of suffering, and the prevalence of child labor is notably high for both boys and girls in the brick kilns of these two blocks.

Abstract Using a mixed research design, the overall objective of this study is to investigate the profiles of child labour in Ethiopia’s districts of Raya-Kobo and Angot. The study’s specific objectives are to examine types of activities and prevalence of child labour, to identify the children’s working contexts, and to evaluate the extent of harm children face in workplaces. The study hypothesizes the existence of significant variations in the profiles of child labour (activity types, prevalence rates, settings, and level of harm to children) as a result of several circumstances. While survey methodology was used to collect primary data from 431 randomly selected respondents, desk review and document analysis were also used to gather secondary data. The sampling procedures used include multi-stage purposive and systematic random sampling. Descriptive and inferential (Ordered Probit Regression model) methods of data analysis are utilized to analyze the data. The results of the descriptive analysis demonstrate a high incidence and magnitude of child labour, as well as children’s early entry to work. The regression analysis reveals children’s exposure to high levels of harm at work, which is directly exacerbated by household age, income diversification, land fragmentation, livestock number, shocks, and the predicted value of remittances. Contrarily, access to rural transportation, household heads’ education level, cart ownership, and family size reduce children’s harm extent while working. The study highlights the need to design strategies for age-appropriate work to protect children from hazardous and high-intensity activities, undertake community awareness campaigns about the impact of child labour on children, and strengthen local stakeholders’ capacity. Additionally, connecting rural areas and farmers’ croplands to towns or major routes via repaired or new roads would be beneficial.

Background: Involvement of children in street trading is inimical, contrary to the Rights of the Child, and threatens holistic child development. Objective: To describe the sociodemographic characteristics of child street vendors in Nnewi. Method: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey of children selling wares on the streets of Nnewi, southeast Nigeria. Results: 147 children (90 boys and 57 girls) aged 8 – 19 years were interviewed: 57 (38.8%) lived with their parents, 63 (42.9%) with relations and friends, while 27 (18.3%) lived alone. Also, 27 (18.4%) were Anambra state indigenes, others hailing from surrounding states. The parents of all the subjects were of low socioeconomic status. Trading was taking place during school hours for financial gains of the family. As many as 42.9% of the subjects had completed primary education: 89 (60.5%) had completely dropped out of school for varying periods. Nine girls (6.1%) had been sexually abused and 46 children (32.7%) had at sometime lost their earnings to robbers. Majority (79.6%) aspired to higher education if given the opportunity. Conclusion: Many parents in the low socioeconomic groups still keep their children out of school to work and help boost the family income. It is recommended that legislation be made against children trading during school hours.

Over the years, concerns about working conditions and labour rights within the textile industry have become increasingly prominent. Addressing these issues, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) has played a pivotal role in shaping and improving working conditions across the textile sector. This paper aims to explore the key legal regulations and non-legislative initiatives undertaken by the ILO. The author refers to the texts of the conventions, studies of the ILO and other organisations, as well as the literature on law. The research conducted indicates that the ILO’s actions positively impacted the textile industry’s labour practices globally. Nevertheless, the author argues that it is necessary to adopt a convention specifically dedicated to labour rights in the textile industry, thereby promoting fair and sustainable practices that benefit workers, businesses, and economies.

ABSTRACT This paper uses household panel data from the Thai Socio‐Economic Surveys of 2012 and 2017 to examine the effects of parental health shocks on child education and labour. Three measures of parental health are analysed: chronic illness, hospitalisation, and functional health status. The results show that the parentʼs illness decreases school enrolment and leads to fewer years of education completed. Boys are less likely to have attended school if any parent was chronically ill or had any health problems. Parentsʼ chronic illness increases the probability of entering the labour force for youths aged 15 and over; however, only maternal illness increases their time spent at work. Additionally, parental illness significantly increases household health expenditures, but there is a significant decline in education expenditures. The results suggest that targeted government support to low‐income families affected by major illnesses of parents could help them to maintain their children in school.

Abstract This article contributes to the stock of scientific knowledge by showing the effect of orphan status on child labour and school attendance in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). While the abolition of child labour is undeniably one of the major tasks assigned to the International Labour Organization (ILO) when it was founded, child labour remains a severe problem worldwide. In many parts of the world, especially in developing countries, children do not have access to school. Instead of ending up in school, millions of children are forced to engage in child labour in income-generating and non-income-generating activities. Little researchers have yet made it possible to obtain simultaneous information on child labour, school attendance and orphaned children. This paper describes the research that tries to make such a connection. Data used is from the out-of-school children and adolescents (OOSC-DRC-2012) survey organised by the Ministry of Primary, secondary and Vocational Education. Using a bivariate probit econometric model and testing the endogeneity with an instrumental variables approach, funding of the analysis supports the assumption of a significant negative relationship between child labour and school attendance. The result shows also that being orphaned reduces a child's likelihood of school attendance and increases the probability of entering the labour market. It is underlined that most children are present in non-income-generating than income-generating activities.

Purpose: This paper explores the deconstruction of child labour in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sites, highlighting different perspectives. Despite the economic benefits to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), ASM poses challenges, particularly where children are concerned. Method: ology: Our study uses a convergent parallel mixed methods approach to interpret qualitative and qualitative data based on the conceptual framework of human capital. Trivariate probit and Tobit models were used for quantitative data and content analysis was employed for qualitative data. We collected primary data by interviewing children involved in artisanal mining activities. Interviews were conducted with consent from the children and their parents or guardians. We adopt snowball sampling due to the lack of a database. The Centre of Expertise on Mining Governance (CEGEMI) developed the data collection instruments in collaboration with Inner City Fund (ICF) International and validated by the United States Department of Labour. Findings: We found that limited access to education leads to decreased school attendance rates among children, pushing them towards engaging in hazardous and non-hazardous economic activities within the DRC's mining areas. Moreover, excessive working hours negatively impact children's academic performance. Consequently, there is a trade-off between attending school and engaging in child labour at ASM sites in the DRC. Limitations: This study did not consider domestic activities carried out by children. This could give even more detailed results. Public policy implications: Governments and partners must prioritise creating a comprehensive list of hazardous activities for children in the ASM context. Careful conceptualisation is necessary to ensure the clarity and effectiveness of this list. Raising awareness about the merits of removing children from activities related to mining is important for households living in and around ASM sites. Interventions aiming to reduce child labour and increase school attendance in ASM zones must remain mindful of the socio-economic and school infrastructure needs.

The increasing presence of young people on the Nigerian streets participating in child labour has continued to attract public policy attention. Available research on child labour reveals sparse scholarly information on the security implications for young people in South-West Nigeria, particularly Ondo State. The study aims to understand the argument that child labour poses major security threats to the overall well-being of child labourers. A total of 147 questionnaires were distributed, with 12 focus group discussions and 12 semi-structured interviews conducted with young people and guardians (mostly mothers). Frequency distributions were employed to analyse the quantitative data, and NVivo (v.14) qualitative software was used to identify themes and sub-themes. A content analytical tool was used to make sense of the themes. Child labour activities include street trading, hawking, domestic help and construction work. Causes of child labour activities include lack of access to basic education, cultural and societal beliefs, poverty, and family breakdown, among others. Security threats include occasional kidnapping for ransom, sexual molestation, slavery, exploitation, risk of injury, diseases, and death. The study suggests a more responsive Child’s Rights Act in Nigeria for the protection of the rights and dignity of every child.

Child labour is one of the major obstacles to the realization of universal primary education in low- and middle-income countries. Child labour deprives children of their chances to acquire the required skills for the development of their potential. This is akin to a child trying to prepare for an exam while carrying a heavy backpack of worries, fears, and distractions on their back which affects their desired outcome. This study provided an updated review of the literature on child labour's influence on primary school pupils' enrolment. Child labour literature was explored via a scoping literature review strategy. As a result of this literature review, child labour negatively impacts primary school enrolment. This study also revealed that child labour is the major contributor to primary school pupils' dropout. Finally, this review revealed that enforcing a minimum employment age of 15 and reducing the return to child labour without providing social supports such as conditional cash transfer to the poor household would facilitate an increase in children’s dropout rate in developing countries. Based on the empirical child labour literature, more research is needed to be conducted using qualitative and quantitative measures to capture first-hand information to augment quantitative measures.

The new Domestic Workers Dataset is the largest single set of surveys (n = 11,759) of domestic workers to date. Our analysis of this dataset reveals features about the lives and work of this “hard-to-find” population in India—a country estimated to have the largest number of people living in forms of contemporary slavery (11 million). The data allow us to identify child labour, indicators of forced labour, and patterns of exploitation—including labour paid below the minimum wage—using bivariate analysis, factor analysis, and spatial analysis. The dataset also helps to advance our understanding of how to measure labour exploitation and modern slavery by showing the value of “found data” and participatory and citizen science approaches.

AbstractChild labour remains widespread in the urban slums of Bangladesh. Empirical studies indicate that various local-level factors drive poor families and children to engage in child labour. However, the role of structural factors and environmental realities is underrepresented in the current scholarship. This investigation examined the role of these factors in normalizing child labour in the slum communities of Dhaka. The researcher adapted a socio-ecological model to develop a conceptual framework for collecting qualitative data from the slum communities of two recently urbanized areas of the city: Hazaribagh and Matuail. A five-month fieldwork project was carried out to conduct 40 semi-structured interviews and two focus group discussions with parents and community members. The data analysis resulted in the following findings. A lack of access to schooling pushed many children into labour. The opportunities for children’s employment in the informal sector remained abundant, and the absence of documents complicated law enforcement. Due to inconsistent adult income, many families are involved in child labour to increase their household income. Local employers chose children over adults for certain occupations due to their low wages and easy-to-control nature. Natural disasters, climate change, and family difficulties drove a large number of families to these slums, and informal employment opportunities for both adults and children drew them there. The shortage of playgrounds and specialized schooling shaped children’s tendency to work more. All together, child labour has become a cultural reality. Policies and interventions aiming to reduce child labour must influence these structural factors and provide support to families and children.

The following conversation is an abridged transcript of a discussion that Prof. Dr. Beata Halicka (UAM) held with Prof. Dr. Johannes-Dieter Steinert of the University of Wolverhampton in the UK. It took place on December 1, 2022 and was the opening event of a conference entitled Little Workers: Child Labor in socio-cultural and economic perspectives throughout history. The conference was organized by the Department of Economic History, the Department of Eastern European History and the Research Unit of Cultural History and was held at the Faculty of History of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan. Johannes-Dieter Steinert is a prominent specialist in the field of child forced laborers in National Socialist Germany and German occupied Eastern Europe. His books on the subject have been published in English, German and Polish.

This paper examines the phenomenon of child and youth labour in the post-Stalin era in the Soviet Union. The starting point for the consideration constitutes the analysis of the law adopted by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1958 titled “On the strengthening of the link between school and life and the further development of people’s education in the USSR”. This law placed great emphasis on combining education with practice and involving pupils from the earliest grades in various forms of both productive and socially useful labour. Subsequently, four categories of labour to which children and young people in the USSR were systemically forced has been distinguished. These included: occasional labours, work and leisure camps, so-called subbotniki and little communal works, as well as compulsory recycling. The paper thoroughly depicts all of them in the light of memoir material.

The present paper attempts to see the women and child worker in the old city of Hyderabad in the Bangle industry. Women make up a sizable portion of India’s labour force, yet they are paid less and have less secure jobs than men. As a result, many of these mothers choose to earn an income for their families by working from home. Women who work in the informal sector work with minimum pay and hence the girl child is an easy prey to assist the mother in supplementing the income and helping in the household chores so that more time is left to pursue the trade for an income. Our sample includes 100 women respondents and 150 girls. Being in the unregulated, home-based informal sector has made it challenging to organize the employees, leaving the bulk of bangle-makers in precarious positions both at work and at home. The increasing number of children, especially girls, who are taking part in the production of bangles is also a cause for alarm. It would appear that the piece rate method of payment and the fact that the work may be done from home encourage the participation of family members, including children, in the labour force.

Nowadays we perceive child labour as a shameful torture and a wicked destruction of the natural order of things. After all, childhood is a time for carelessness, fun and schooling, and children are innocent and vulnerable. Nowadays people believe that these are primeval and natural rights, which is not true. There used to be two models of child labour which I present in my paper. Domestic work in the countryside and in cities, characteristic of the feudal economy at the time when a workplace and a place of residence were the same place (this is still the case in the countryside nowadays), and work outside home, for example in a factory, characteristic of the capitalist economy. There were also varied mixed forms. Thus, in the pre-modern period, rural children were already given to work on a lord’s farm, to a rich farmer, or to serve in a city. Similarly, in modern times, children worked at home in domestic industries. The extensive use of child labour was first made possible by the lack of compulsory schooling, which in turn later prevented regular child labour. As long as there was an economic need, however, school had to give way to earning a living for one’s family.

On December 1, 2022, the 2nd National Scientific Conference on ‘Work Culture’ was held at the Faculty of History, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, entitled “Little Workers: Child Labor in Social-Cultural and Economic Perspectives Throughout History”. The organizers of the meeting were the Department of Economic History, the Department of Eastern European History, and the Workshop of Cultural History of the Faculty of History at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. Due to the participation of speakers from abroad, the conference had an international character this time around.

Łódź, the so-called “Polish Manchester”, was the biggest textile center in the Eastern Europe, which developed in the 19th century and experienced all dramatic changes that happened in Poland during the long 20th century. As the vanguard of modernity, this industrial city was the place when all the pros and cons of the early capitalism appeared in much more dramatic way then elsewhere in Poland. In a result the problem such as workers motherhood and child labor became the real social phenomenon that forced many journalists, medical doctors, factory inspector and political activists to work against them. In this article, the way in which the workers motherhood and child labor was problematized in the discourse of Łódź is analyzed as the struggle with modernity. In author’s opinion, the experience of living in the industrial cities cause that approach to such complicated social problems developed in places like Łódź is less ideological and more empathizing then nationwide one. The specific case of Łódź can be useful in refreshing the Polish debate about modernity.

Child labour is a controversial issue both in present day as well as in past societies. In historical perspective, studies focus on the factory labour of children during the industrialization process. On the one hand, its contribution to the family income is mentioned as a potential positive effect on the living standard of the whole family, on the other hand reference is made to the permanent health risks for children working in the factories. Using qualitative sources, there were contemporary testimonies supporting both views. The present paper, therefore, uses a rather quantitive approach referring to the number of working days lost due to illness, anthropometric indicators such a height and weight, the results of draft examinations as well as mortality differences and cause-of-death rates from “accidents” in urban and rural areas during the nineteenth century. Available data do not provide clear evidence of direct harmful effects of child labour; many indications point to a neutral or even positive effect.

An examination into the origins of rights’ discourse and contemporary debates around child labour in developing countries, illustrates some of the problems with the discursive uses that children’s rights is put to, and its weakness as a means of addressing issues of social justice. Addressing the discourse around child labour, and how this is related to wider conceptions of the individual in post-European Enlightenment thought, enables some enquiry into the nature of these problems. Arce (2015) reveals the scale of child labour as a social issue, and that it occurs predominantly in developing countries, with almost a fifth of the global total of child labourers residing in Africa. Whilst it has a global impact that transcends national borders, the framing of the discourse around it occurs within parameters set by European actors. In this paper we argue that, if children’s rights campaigns wish to do more than reinforce existing global systems of domination and subordination, there needs to be a focus on children’s place in a nexus of social relations that themselves need radical rethinking. Such a project, we argue, could more usefully provide a starting place for conceptions of social justice that pay adequate attention to the needs of childhood.

Background: Child labourers are highly prone to maltreatment mostly perpetrated by members of their immediate family as well as employers and co-workers. This maltreatment is considered to be a serious public health issue. However, little is known about this form of violence. Purpose: This study aimed to explore the views of key informants on the prevalence and attributes of perpetrators of the maltreatment of child labourers in Bangladesh. Methods: The key experts were paediatricians, journalists, academics, and government bureaucrats such as policy makers and Non-Government Organisation employees working in the area of child abuse or labour relations. Interviews were purposefully conducted via TEAMS with 17 expert participants. A thematic analysis using NVivo was used to analyse the data. Results: The key informants were of the opinion that the prevalence of the maltreatment of child labourers was unknown. However, they were of the view that physical maltreatment of child labourers occurred between 70% and 100% of the time, while emotional abuse and neglect was estimated to be 100% followed by 50% for financial exploitation. Child maltreatment is more likely to occur in informal workplace environments. Biological and foster parents were considered the primary perpetrators, while employers and adult co-workers were considered secondary perpetrators. Perpetrators of child labour maltreatment were often characterized as having a history of childhood maltreatment themselves, a lack of knowledge of social awareness and parenting, and suffer from economic difficulties. Conclusion: The finding also calls into question the validity of key informant interviewing. Only the journalists, academics and medical experts had first-hand knowledge of the maltreatment of child labourers with experts in the NGO sector and government policy makers lacking detailed knowledge of the field.

The research explored the impact of artisanal mining on the career development of adolescents at three selected schools in Imbizo District, Bulawayo Metropolitan Province. Interpretivism research philosophy was employed in the study, and a qualitative research method was used. The phenomenological research design was adopted for the study. The sample comprised fifteen school children aged between 14 to 20 years, and six teachers were selected from schools in Imbizo district in Bulawayo province, Zimbabwe, using purposive sampling. Due to COVID-19 regulations, interviews were telephonically, and focus group discussions were conducted online. Interviews were used to collect data from children, while focus group discussions were used to collect data from teachers. The findings revealed that causes of child involvement in artisanal mining include influence from society, poverty, drugs, adventure and the COVID-19 outbreak. The research findings revealed that child involvement in mining brought undesirable behavioural traits such as anti-social behaviour, poor academic performance, health and safety risks and different forms of abuse. Strategies suggested by teachers to mitigate child involvement in illegal mining encompassed legalising the small-scale mines, life skills education, educational support to all vulnerable children, community awareness campaigns, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government involvement. The children suggested that the government could help by providing them with basic needs like food and paying for their schools and stationery.

The text whose main objective is to arouse in the reader the need to look at chocolate production differently as a strategy that can contribute to the elimination of slave labour. Therefore, it aims to answer the following research problem: How does the cocoa production chain contribute to the maintenance of this heinous practice and how to counteract it? It is a theoretical and normative study that, through qualitative, bibliographic and documentary research, uses a deductive method to achieve the proposed objective. First, the persistence of slavery in the workplace today is analysed. Then, the study discusses the cocoa production chain and the need to control labour abuses in the chocolate industry. Finally, it points out the extremely important role that companies have to play in combating and eliminating the exploitation of human labour by applying strict controls in their value chain, coinciding with the idea of sustainable development.

For a long time the world has campaigned against child labour, both with local and global efforts. These initiatives however tend to ignore contextual forces such as, specific socio-cultural contexts and societal interpretation of child labour. Scholarship on this subject uncovers several circumstances, reasons, consequences, processes, and challenges of child labour among different communities in Africa. Extant literature also reveals information regarding the complexities of sociocultural dimension in examining child labour practices. Building on the already existing evidence, this paper uncovers sociocultural complexity in explaining child labour practices among semi nomadic pastoral Wataturu communities in Igunga. The paper exploits various information collected through library and archival research, participant observation, and oral interviews to demonstrate how sociocultural set up of Wataturu challenges the mainstream approach to the claimed child labour practices.

Myths and misconceptions about traffickers, the nature of trafficking, and how the crime varies in different jurisdictions pose challenges for prevention work, rehabilitating offenders, and achieving justice for victims. This article, based on an analysis of over 100 human trafficking court cases in Vietnam, outlines the reality of one particular trafficking crime: the trafficking of Vietnamese women and girls for sexual exploitation in China. We show that the majority of the prosecuted traffickers are similarly poor and vulnerable as their victims. Most are from ethnic minorities, with a poor educational background, and few income generation opportunities. Based on this evidence, we discuss some challenges associated with prosecution of these particular traffickers and suggest more effective approaches for human trafficking prevention.

Background: This study describes factors promoting child labour in small-scale gold mines in rural Tanzania, a pernicious problem despite the country's adoption of laws and regulations intended to curb it. Methods: Employing a phenomenological design, we collected qualitative data using focus group discussions and in-depth interviews to describe factors promoting children's engagement in small-scale gold mining activities in three districts in Tanzania. Data analysis applied constructs from the ecological system theory. Results: Child labour was reported to be common in the small-scale gold mines and abject household poverty was reported as the main factor pushing children to work in the mines because of their respective households’ inability to provide for their basic needs. Other underlying factors stated included divorce and family disintegration and limited diversification of income-earning activities. The migratory nature of artisanal mining led some miner parents to not prioritize the education of their children. Furthermore, peer pressure and parental influence, especially of mothers, promoted entry into mining or reinforced its continuation. Early socialisation of children as future miners and lack of perspective and societal expectations of other life trajectories contributed to persistent child labour within mining communities. At the government level, the study participants mentioned poor reinforcement of mining regulations as another factor that legitimised child labour in the mines. Conclusion: Since factors promoting child labour in small-scale gold mines are multifaceted, efforts for its elimination require a multi-layered approach aimed at addressing the root-causes at the micro-, meso-, exo- and macro-level systems.

Background: Child labour deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity and is harmful to their physical and mental development. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the pattern and adverse effects associated with child labour in Enugu, Nigeria. Patients, Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using an in-depth interviewer-administered questionnaire guide on child labour and adverse effects among children aged 6 to

This study explores the experiences of school going children who combine work and schooling in the Ekumfi-Narkwa fishing and farming community in the Central Region of Ghana. These children participate in works in their community as part of internalising their community’s norms and values, raise income and gain some skills to support their parents in a sustainable manner. The study employed a qualitative approach involving the use of in-depth interviews and participant/non-participant observations to elicit responses from the children. For these children, their tasks as fisher folks and farmers are regarded as purposeful for their everyday survival in their community. They consider the effort they put in their work as a way of reproducing inter-generational orders underpinned by strong ethical connotations. The children speak about how they gain their identities, self-esteem and skills through the work they do, the beneficial nature of the works they engage in and the ethical dimensions of engagement are emphasised. However, for their future, the children have dreams of other types of works that they think could be more fulfilling based on their level of education.

Background: Despite increasing knowledge of its harmful consequences, child labour is a persistent issue in developing countries; moreover, the number of working children has increased in recent years. Research objectives: To explore the issue of child labour by defining its drivers and indicating strategies for reducing its extent and impacts. To answer the following research question: What are the feasible solutions to the problem of child labour that might also be applied in the context of social economy or social entrepreneurship? Research design and methods: The authors rely on a combination of an analytical and synthetic approach and draw mostly on a review of the literature as well as normative acts (in the latter case, taking advantage of the dogmatic-legal method). Information resources comprise scientific research, studies of international institutions, legal acts, and websites. The last section employs heuristic methods to identify new sectors of social economy activity in the context of efforts to combat and prevent child labour. As a result, the considerations are primarily qualitative in nature. Results: Despite the absence of instances of direct implementation of social economy (entrepreneurship) solutions designed to address the problem of child labour in developing countries, it is possible to identify numerous prospective domains and instruments where this sort of activity might be conducted. Conclusions: Child labour is a complex issue in developing countries since both internal and external factors contribute to its emergence and perpetuation. Its abolition requires immediate cooperation of multiple institutions and organisations from the governmental, private, and social spheres. It appears that social economy organisations should be included in the list of existing actors in this field.

Child labor is a controversial aspect in modern societies, yet not entirely visible. In this article we reveal two competing positions in this debate, reviewing 1) the notion of child labor and its implication in the development of abolitionist policy, 2) the perspective of the movements of working children and adolescents under the focus of the critical appraisal of work and the claim for decent work, and 3) a synthesis of four arguments with which the claiming position responds to the conception of child labor: the exploitation / work relationship; the work / crime relationship; the work / school relationship; the interpretation of the right to work and participation. It is concluded that the debate around child labor requires the participation of working children for a better conceptual development of the phenomenon, whose discussion extends beyond the fact that children work

Child labour is one of the most important social harm in the world. Many children are working in exploitative conditions and are exploited. In Iran, policies and interventions to eliminate child labour have not been very effective so far. Therefore, considering the diversity and extent of child labour and injuries caused by forced labour on them, the present study has tried to identify the types of child labour in Tehran, categories and occupations of child exploitation and identify the issues and consequences of each type of labour for children; so that through proper knowledge, we can help plan the necessary measures for any child job in order to reduce and eliminate child labour. A qualitative study has used in this research. We used semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 15 key informants in the field of child labour to gather the data. Also, we studied documents which were sampling done intentionally and theoretically. A thematic analysis was used in this study and finally, we reached seven main themes: Workshop work, Peddling, Street services, Barbage gathering, Begging, House working and Delinquencies. In conclusion, results try to get a realistic cognition of child labour based on a holistic approach. We hope this knowledge use as the basis of research and scientific and practical actions of policymakers and institutions in charge of children's health and welfare.

Abstract Background Globally, millions of children are involved in child labour. However, low- and middle-income countries are mostly hit. This study examined the predictors of child labour among public secondary school students in the Enugu metropolis. Methods This was a descriptive cross-sectional study of 332 junior secondary students attending public schools in Enugu metropolis, Nigeria. Multistage sampling technique was used to select the six secondary schools and the students that participated in the study. Data collection was done from September to October 2018. Pretested structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire was used for data collection. The questionnaire contained information on the sociodemographic variables, the kind of work done by the respondents and the number of working hours spent weekly. UNICEF’s standard indicator for child labour was used to estimate the prevalence of child labour. Logistic regression was used to identify socioeconomic predictors of child labour. Results The prevalence of overall child labour was 71.7%, while for domestic and economic child labour prevalence were 52.1 and 34.0%, respectively. About 35.2% of the respondents worked under hazardous conditions while 8% were forced to work. Two-thirds (236, 65%) of the respondents who have heard about child labour perceived it as wrong. The child labourers mainly worked to render financial assistance to their parents. The predictors of child labour were class of study (AOR = 2.208 (95% CI: 1.199–4.066) and weekly income earned (AOR = 0.316 (95% CI: 0.176–0.567). Conclusion The prevalence of child labour among junior students in public secondary schools in Enugu is high, and is predicted by the level of schooling and income earned. Economic and social reforms could contribute to addressing the predictors of child labour.

The labour of foreign minors living in Italy fits into a double scenario: on the one hand, it evokes aspects or lifestyles typical of their original culture and therefore represents an experience of continuity with it; on the other hand, it is placed in the context of the host country, where young migrants are often employed in low-skilled jobs or are forced to enter the job market as a means to support themselves and their family. This is an entirely transversal problem in the country, concerning both the more industrialised areas of the North and the more agricultural areas of the South. The sectors where the labour of minors is more widespread are commerce, catering, agriculture, and services. Case studies relating to the experiences of young Chinese migrants and children of Moroccan descent living in Italy are presented in this article. The concluding section suggests that there is no single causal factor responsible for child labour. Indeed, subsistence poverty, inequalities in accessing the labour market and parental choices or constraints may influence the decision to coerce a minor to work.

Participation in child labour, in both household and non-household activities, gender effects and low educational attainment remain challenges for countries in Latin America. Through hierarchical linear modelling of data from the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), this study seeks to explore the current cross-country trends in the relationship between educational attainment, child labour and gender. While non-household labour is found to have an effect, as per statistical significance and the magnitude, on educational achievement across all Latin American countries; participation in household labour is significant in only two countries (Peru and Uruguay). Girls are found to underperform compared to boys by a significant margin across Latin America. The later part of the study seeks to examine the interaction effects of gender and participation in labour activities. Results show that gender has no moderating effect, suggesting that participation in work itself or workspace (household or non-household) does not influence or contribute to gender inequality in education outcomes. The explanatory factors for gender inequality in education outcomes are potentially rooted in a different sphere of influence which needs to be deciphered through deeper empirical investigation.

International remittances can increase the income of recipient households, and thus reduce their budget constraints. As such, they may enhance consumption and investment opportunities for family members that remain in the country of origin. This document analyzes the impact of international remittances on child labor and school attendance for children aged between 12 and 18 in Santiago de Cali, Colombia. Using a Propensity Score Matching (PSM) strategy, we find that children in remittance-receiving households are less likely to engage in market work, but no evidence that international remittances may influence school attendance. The results in this document emphasize the importance of remittance income to improve the welfare of children left behind, reducing their exposure to market work, which is one of the targets of the Sustainability and Development Goals.

Both government and non-governmental organisations have been making efforts in the fight against the menace of child labour, child poverty and deprivation. Despite these efforts, 70% of world’s child labour still work in agricultural sector. This study examined the nexus and impact of child poverty, deprivation and other socio-economic variables on child labour among rural farming households in Enugu State of Nigeria. Data for the study were collected using survey research design with the aid of structured questionnaire and interview. Descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression was applied for data analysis. The result of the study shows that majority (92%) of the farming households were engaged in crop farming, majority (69%) of the children aged between 4 and 17 combined both schooling and agricultural labour. For children who were completely out of school, 5% we found to be idle while 16% engaged in agricultural labour. A significant number of children were engaged in agricultural labour, and 62.3% of them had access to primary school only. About 49.4% of children cannot obtain primary health services. Age, household size and gender of children had positive and significant (p < 0.10) relationship with child labour. We recommended a redesign of poverty alleviation programmes for rural active farmers and public schools make attractive, accessible and affordable in the rural areas.

INTRODUCTION: Child labour is an interdisciplinary issue including the child rights dimension. Child rights training for non-governmental organizations in the means of forfeiture and keeping the rights of children gives crucial responsibility to NGO leaders. The research is done to assess the change of child rights knowledge level of NGO leaders via training. METHODS: The research is experimental and it is accomplished in 4 pilot cities (Adana, Mersin, Ordu, Manisa) in four months between March and June 2018 and 123 persons took part in it. The study is supported by a UNICEF project cooperation with The Confederation of Turkish Tradesmen and Craftsmen (CTTC) and Hatay Mustafa Kemal University (HMKU). In the frame of the research, the leaders are given a four hours of training on child rights and child labour. Child labour survey form and child rights attitude scale is applied to the leaders before and after the training. The permission for the research is got from HMKU Ethics Committee. Gathered data is analyzed by SPSS 22, examined by Kolmogorov-Smirnow test in the means of distribution and then inter-groups Mann-Whitney U test / Kruskal Wallis test is used. Wilcoxon test is used before and after the training and p>0.05 is accepted as meaningful. RESULTS: As a result of the research findings, child rights scale points average of NGO leaders are 97.52+-10.95 before training for preliminary test; and 99.02+-10.71 after training for posttest. Acquired values gathered before and after child rights training are statistically meaningful (p=0.01). The effect of training compared to the gender of leaders (M/F), working position (President/Worker), working experience (0-11 years), age variables is not statistically meaningful (p>0.05). On the other hand, education level of leaders is statistically meaningful depending on the cities that the research accomplished. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Child rights knowledge level could be increased via the training of NGO leaders. The trainings should be increased considering the regional results depending on the pilot studies.

The article describes the phenomenon of child labour in the informal urban economy of a region known as the Triple Frontier located between Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay, where some of the worst forms of child labour with distinctive regional features are present. At the Triple Frontier, tensions between global and local dimensions shape an interconnected and diverse space marked by inequality and asymmetries. For children and adolescents in vulnerable situations, border cities offer an opportunity to establish an income for themselves or their families through economic activities in the urban informal sector. However, the convergence of three national states, along with the sheer length and porousness of borders in the region, also allows the persistence of the worst forms of child labour, including trafficking for sexual or labour exploitation. Even though the Convention on the Rights of the Child has been ratified by almost every country in the world, the extent of their compliance varies greatly. Historically there have been (at least) two types of childhood: that with a guarantee of inclusion in traditional socialisation mechanisms and excluded childhood, where the rights of children are not guaranteed. In the latter case, children will have a different recognition of their rights depending on their socioeconomic background. In the Triple Frontier region, poverty is criminalised, and children from vulnerable backgrounds would be subject to criminal law enforcement to the detriment of the rights established in the Convention. The article focuses on how working children inhabit and appropriate urban space in order to maximise economic opportunity while at the same time minimising considerable risks. The voices of working children are also included, as they are fundamental for understanding child labour as a strategy to deal with social precariousness.

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Abstract The study examined the relationship between child labour participation and household wealth (in terms of livestock and cropland) considering representative sample smallholders from four (Kurfa Chelie, Kersa, Fedis, and Melka Bello) districts in eastern Hararghe Zone of Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. The descriptive statics showed that average family size was 5.45 individuals per household, which was larger than the national average (4.9) in 2016. In the study area, children with age interval of 4–14 years, that were the subject matter of this study, constituted 43.3% of the total population. Around 23% of sampled households spent less than 2471.22 Birr per annum per adult equivalent for home consumption, which is an amount based on the inflation adjusted poverty line. Households in Fedis district experienced the worst poverty head count score, wherein 44% of them could not satisfy the minimum living standard requirement. Double-hurdle model result revealed that livestock and cropland holding of smallholders significantly affect child labour participation in domestic work. This finding implies that household’s asset ownership (possession of larger livestock and cropland) would not initiate children to budget more time for their education. The model result also showed that household head’s education level significantly reduced children’s domestic labour participation in the study area. Thus, this research recommended that there should be improvement in households’ education and awareness level in the study area to improve child school enrolment. Finally, it is easy to say that the Wealth Paradox about child labour holds true for smallholders in eastern Ethiopia.

This paper aims to look at the factors that play an important role in discriminating welfare outcomes of children. The paper considers school participation and incidence of child labour as two important indicators of children welfare. The study has been carried out in four Indian states: Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh as states with considerably better welfare outcomes and Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh being the poor performing states. The unique feature of this paper is that it computes a child welfare index combining the schooling and labour outcomes of children using NFHS-3 survey data and employs Multiple Discriminant Analysis (MDA) technique to determine the household level factors that distinguish between the welfare outcome of children in terms of education and child labour. The results confirm that the incidence of child labour and poor school participation is not mutually exclusive and thus there are common factors that affect both the outcomes.

Introduction: “Street children” is a term used to describe those kids who live and work in streets. Children are exposed to several hazards and catastrophe which lead them to vulnerable and pessimistic experiences. Their daily life and poor quality of life uncover them to various threats that makes them victims for drug trafficking, prostitution, organ trade and slavery. Material & Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted in Etawah city from May 2017 to Oct 2018. Street children aged 13-18 years, who live and/or work on streets of Etawah. Street children were looked for at identified hotspots of street children in Etawah city like market places, railway station, stalls/dhabas/hotels etc. and they were selected for the study by Snowball sampling. Information was extracted from face to face interview using pre-structured questionnaire. Results: Study enrolled 145 street children, 35% haven’t attended school, 30% leave away from family. Street level vending, working in dhabas and mechanic assistant were common professions. Working children had poor quality of life. Conclusion: More than four fifth of the street children were working for their survival, street level vending, working in dhabas were common occupations involved. Quality of life was poor among working street children.

The aim of this study is to analyze the medical aspect of child labour during the Industrial Revolution in England. As it is known one of the most excesses of the Industrial Revolution was the brutal exploitation оf child labour. However, the medical consequences of such exploitation have not been sufficiently studied by historians. The use of the large-scale application of child labour at factories and mines was one of the most visible social phenomena of the Industrial Revolution in England. The first machines were quite easy to use and did not require high qualification and considerable physical strength, so that women and children could work on them. The manufacturers noticed that they could exploit children more profitable than adults, as they could pay less and children couldn’t defend their interests. Therefore, children worked alongside adults up to 14 – 16 hours a day and for wages several times lower. Even children of 5 – 7 years had to work at the factories. The hours of their work were only limited by complete exhaustion after various coercive methods had been unavailingly applied to continue working (for example, after beating by overseers). Their treatment was most inhuman. Even worse were the conditions in which children worked in the coal mines (as a rule, in the dirty and dangerous conditions), until this was stopped by an Act in 1842. As Henry Gibbins wrote in his «Industrial History of England»: «We hear of children and young people in factories overworked and beaten as if they were slaves; of diseases and distortions only found in manufacturing districts; of filthy, wretched homes where people huddle together like wild beasts; we hear of girls and women working underground in the dark recesses of the coal-mines, dragging loads of coal in cars in places where no horses could go, and harnessed and crawling along the subterranean pathways like beasts of burden. Everywhere we find cruelty and oppression, and in many cases the workmen were as slaves bound to fulfil their master’s commands under fear of dismissal and starvation». The English public was shocked when it became known about terrible sufferings and hardships of children as a result of capitalist greed and cruelty. With time the evils of this system of child labour were evident, and the results of their sufferings were seen in the early deaths of the majority of children and in the crippled and distorted forms of the majority of those who survived. Engels was right when he wrote that the wealth of British industrial monopoly was created at the expense of the health and lives of English children. The author of article analyses the negative influence of exhaustive work at factories and mines on health of children (occupational injuries, chronic diseases, mutilation). She also traces the main stages of the public movement for legislative restriction of child labour in England’s industry which served one of important reasons for the first Factory Legislation. As a result of research, the original conclusion was made that the medical aspect of child labour could significantly impair the production characteristics of future generations of English workers. This circumstance, according to the author, has become one of the main motives that prompted the ruling elites of the state to accept the adoption of factory laws.

Child poverty reduction is one of the most important and urgent tasks that requires attention in most regions of the world, nations and Anambra state specifically. The population of impoverished children is progressively increasing in Nigeria because of economic recession and poor security situations that lead to displacement and death of their parents. Although children constitute half of the entire population, commensurate attention is not given to them to match the dimensions of poverty they face. This study argued that child poverty is multidimensional, evidenced in lack of safe drinking water, adequate nutrition, shelter, decent sanitation, medical advice or health services (immunisations) and education, to mention a few. The article highlighted the laudable efforts of the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and Anambra government and maintained that multiple strategies can help in solving this problem. To complement these efforts, the enforcement of biblical policies or principles about children’s rights would in no small measure reduce child poverty. It was concluded that a proper repositioning of children would be matched with implementation of biblical strategies. Biblical intervention could help children socially, mentally and psychologically and in their general well-being. Biblical principles would erase wrong socio-cultural notions about children.

This paper builds an overlapping generations household economy model in a rural set up and examines the relationship between landholding and child labour in the presence of unemployment in the manufacturing sector. We find that irrespective of whether the parents work as agricultural labourers or work on their own land, an increase in landholding size leads to a decline in the child worker’s schooling in the short run and a decline in the growth rate of human capital formation in the long run, but may lead to an increase in steady state human capital in the long run.

This paper reports the blood lead levels amongst illegal juvenile miners and their perception of the role of illegal mining in terms of societal and health issues. The sampled population included 90 illegal miners between 14 and 19 years of age with a mean age of 17 and mean blood lead level of 15.58 µg/dL. Those involved in going underground and draining the gold had higher blood lead levels (BLLs) with a mean = 26.03 µg/dL. Sixteen participants (84%) believed that being involved in illegal mining may lead to adverse health, and they were concerned about injury due to violence. Most participants had experienced occupational and environment-related disease. All participants believe that illegal mining-related activities have the potential to contaminate the environment, yet all have conducted the same activities in their yard or household. The majority of illegal miners know the danger of the chemicals used to extract the gold. Out of 19, only two have ever received personal protective clothing/equipment. The others had to fend for themselves. The findings of this study highlight and raise critical public health, social, and criminal issues. Therefore, there is a need for multisectoral action, especially regarding public health.

Child labour used to be a common phenomenon in colonial tea plantations at the start of the 20th century. Since the 1970s, however, child labour started slowly to disappear from tea plantations on Java. In this article, we argue that the abolishment of child labour was never the result of improved legislation, but should be understood as part of several interrelated historical processes. Emerging educational opportunities for boys and girls, changes in labour demand, household strategies, diversification of family incomes, ideas on childhood, and technological changes in the production process are key to explain this change. This observation might raise serious considerations for policy makers today who aim to abolish child labour or improve working conditions of children.

Concerns have been growing in Ghana about the employment of children, aged between 5-17 years, in cocoa production activities. This concern is echoed by the International Labour Organisation in its attempt to eliminate Worst Form of Child Labour. The objectives of the study were as to: investigate whether the labour of the children are paid for; determine the extent of children’s involvement; and investigate the risks they are exposed to. Using Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), participant groups made up of women, men, children and opinion leaders were purposely selected from 10 cocoa producing communities from the study area. Structured questionnaires were also administered to 50 cocoa farmers through face-to-face interviews. The study revealed that harvesting is the stage in the cocoa production process that children are directly and actively involved. The study concludes by indicating that child labour and cocoa production are inseparable in the cocoa producing areas in the study site.

Child labour is one of the socioeconomic violence against children and violation of Child Right Act that hampers sustainable child development in most of the Nigerian popular cities including Lagos metropolis. Children involve in street hawking, domestic servant, trading, street begging to mention but few have become common endemic features of economic means of survival for many Nigerian children. Reason for this largely depends on factors like urbanization, high rate of illiteracy, high level of unemployment, adoption of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), excruciating poverty, communal clashes, insecurity, rural-urban migration, passive social welfare policy and other attendants’ socio-economic crisis of contradiction of underdevelopment confronting the Nigeria state. This paper surmises with empirical evidence that child labour impacts negatively on child development and breaches the United Nations charter on child’s rights. To extrapolate the issue critically, this paper anchored on social interaction theory of the family to explain the correlation between parental educational status and child labour in Lagos Metropolis which has not been sufficiently documented in extant Nigeria literature. In a cross-sectional survey that involved a four-stage sampling technique, 400 respondents, aged 7-17, took part in the survey. Descriptive statistics and chi-square tools were used to analyze both the univariate and bivariate variables. Findings show a significant relationship between parental educational status and child labour; employment status and child labor. It concluded that free education policy in Lagos State has not exonerated children from the economic violence of child labour while the literacy level of the parent can largely influence the involvement of children in child labour in Lagos state. The study, however, recommended among other measures affordable compulsory adult education for illiterate parent and employment opportunities for unemployed adult parents in order to protect and safeguard Nigerian children from the detrimental implications of child labour on child sustainable development.