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Against the assumption that their literary form precludes Plato from expressing views in his dialogues, this paper argues that it is legitimate to read certain utterances of characters also as expressions of Plato’s views or to infer Plato’s views from his characters’ speech. Ancient hermeneutical practice, including the practice of Plato’s characters themselves, shows mimetic literature’s reception as “double speech” on two registers, a story register and a rhetorical register. Although aware of the distinction between character and author, ancient readers attribute ideology in characters’ speeches directly to the author. Plato’s contemporaries did this with his dialogues. This practice creates the presumption that philosophical dialogues began as a genre both mimetic and assertoric. Evidence from Cicero and Plutarch supports this presumption, and modern examples show writers and artists weaving ideology into their works. Distinctions in modern literary theory help posit “mouthpiece” as a formal property of characters, “turned on” in order for the author to convey ideology at places in the work. I argue that the “mouthpiece” assumption does not entail fallacy and that the theoretical gains of the “author’s mouthpiece” construct outweigh its risks. Without vitiating dialogues’ status as fiction, the “mouthpiece” assumption serves the history of philosophy and enriches our engagement with the texts.

Background/Objective: The possible mechanisms supporting the relationship between the masticatory and the musculoskeletal systems have been recently investigated. It has been suggested that jaw clenching promotes ergogenic effects on prime movers through the phenomenon of concurrent activation potentiation (CAP). The purpose of this study was to analyse the effects of jaw clenching and jaw clenching while wearing mouthguard (MG) on muscle activity and force output during three upper body isometric strength tests. Methods: Twelve highly trained rink-hockey athletes were recruited for the study. A randomized, repeated measures within study design was carried out to compare the acute effects of three experimental conditions: jaw clenching while wearing MG (MG), jaw clenching without MG (JAW) and non-jaw clenching (NON-JAW). Results: Statistical analyses revealed significant higher force output (p

Blood oxygen saturation (SpO2) is an essential indicator of a patient’s general condition. However, conventional measurement methods have some issues such as time delay and interference by ambient light. Improved measurement methods must be developed, and there are no reports on intraoral measurements of SpO2 using wearable devices. Therefore, we aimed to establish an intraoral SpO2 measurement method for the first time. Twelve healthy adults participated in this study. The following steps were taken: (1) to identify the optimal measurement location, mid-perfusion index (PI) values were measured at six places on the mucosa of the maxilla, (2) to validate the optimal measurement pressure, PI values were obtained at different pressures, and (3) using the proposed mouthpiece device, SpO2 values in the oral cavity and on the finger were analyzed during breath-holding. The highest PI values were observed in the palatal gingiva of the maxillary canine teeth, with high PI values at pressures ranging from 0.3 to 0.8 N. In addition, changes in SpO2 were detected approximately 7 s faster in the oral cavity than those on the finger, which is attributed to their proximity to the heart. This study demonstrates the advantage of the oral cavity for acquiring biological information using a novel device.

Background/objectives: The potential advantages of wearing customized bite-aligning mouthguards on several performance parameters such as muscular strength, power and reaction time have been reported. Literature shows that the concurrent activation potentiation phenomenon, elicited by a powered and balanced jaw clenching, can provide athletes with several neuromuscular advantages. The aim of the present study was to investigate the acute effects of jaw clenching while wearing a customized bite-aligning mouthguard on swimming start, countermovement jump and swim bench test, in contrast to two other conditions: non-jaw clenching and jaw clenching without mouthguard. Methods: A randomized, repeated measure within study design was used to compare the condition effect on eight highly trained elite male and female swimmers. Results: Statistical analysis revealed a significant increase in the countermovement jump height (p = 0.041) when comparing the use of mouthguards with the non-jaw condition. In the swim bench, a significant greater time to peak force (p = 0.049) was found when comparing the use of mouthguards with the jaw condition. Although, non-significant effects, small differences were found in the start reaction time and 15-m freestyle swimming when comparing the use of mouthguards with the non-jaw condition. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that wearing customized, bite-aligning mouthguards had an ergogenic effect on specific measures of vertical jump and swim bench test, whereas non-meaningful but small differences were found in swimming start.

The burial traditions that began as a special farewell ceremony in the Sanidar Cave were shaped around the thought that the end was actually a beginning and thusly retained their importance in both pagan and theistic religions. The class distinctions created by production, trade, and technological advancements were reflected in burial traditions in the form of variety in grave goods and tomb architecture. Advancements in the military and politics triggered intercultural exchanges that further increased this variety. When described in relation to burial traditions, mouth/eye bands and decorative appliques are referred to as Funeral/Burial Jewelry in this article. Made of gold leaf, the fact that these objects were unfit for use in daily life supports this identification. These bands, made of gold leaf and appearing in Mesopotamia during the Bronze Age, spread from there to Anatolia, Cyprus, Greece, and the entire Mediterranean Basin. In terms of both form and decoration, some of the richest examples of this group of artifacts, which were preserved in situ in the tombs at Kültepe, were recovered from the necropolises of Cyprus. While death masks were preferred in Mycenaean burial traditions, mouth and eye bands came into fashion in Greece during the Iron Age. Gold leaf appliques, decorated with motifs and cut into various forms, were once again used within the framework of burial traditions as clothing decorations from the Classical Period to the Roman Era. In this article we have examined 17 artifacts consisting of gold leaf mouth and eye bands, decorative appliques, and a fragment of diadem found in the collection of the Adana Museum. The 10 gold leaf appliques with an oval shape suitable for covering the mouth and eyes were categorized in to two groups: decorated and undecorated. The remaining samples, shaped like equilateral rectangles, lack decoration and are therefore identified as mouth bands. The decorated group consists of seven mouth bands with three having their form and decoration previous defined in the literature. The four strip-shaped samples (cat. no. 5-7), with measurements varying from 3 cm to 6 cm, are unique in that they are shaped to minimize their diadems. Stylistic similarities were reflected in the pattern repertoire and like on the diadems, scenes depicting large gatherings of auxiliary figures together with main figures were preferred. The lip decorations featured on the four mouth bands of standard form (cat. no. 1-4) include depictions of bee and plant motifs. Of the undecorated samples, four are oval shaped (cat. no. 8-11), and one is an equilateral rectangle (cat. no. 12). The only round gold leaf sample was identified as an eye band (cat. no. 13). The other groups of artifacts analyzed are the rhombus and square appliques made of gold leaf. One of the appliques depicts Nemea and Young Hercules holding the coat of a lion (cat. no. 14), the other depicts Fortuna sitting on a diphros while a female figure presents her with an offering (cat. no. 15). The applique featuring Hercules is exactly the same as the pattern used on Alexander’s silver coins. The other applique depicts one of Fortuna’s characteristic narrations that was used extensively during the Roman Period yet left unrecorded in the literature. The last applique to be analyzed is rectangular and features a row of six central holes sitting one on top of another (cat. no. 16). On the last example, which is thought to belong to the edge of the diadem, there are groups of couple figures (female-male) given face-to-face (cat. no. 17). Since we do not know the location and context in which these artifacts were found, they have been dated using the analogy method. The lip-shaped mouth bands from Cyprus were dated to the Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age for their resemblance to period samples. The sharp-edged oval mouth bands have been dated Classical and Hellenistic Periods, and equilateral rectangle-shaped mouth bands have been dated to the Late Roman Imperial Period. For Gorgo/Medusa and Athena Parthenos with female figures mouth band has been suggested Late Hellenistic and Early Roman Period. The applique with the bust of Hercules was dated to the end of the 4th century BCE, and the gold leaf applique depicting the figure of a woman presenting an offering to Fortuna was dated to the 1st century BCE. The fragment of diadem is dated to 3th and 2nd and BCE.

Abstract Background It is essential to understand, characterize, and measure the embouchure mechanism of a wind instrumentalists, where the applied forces on the perioral tissues can usually promote discomfort or pain. Methods The sample consisted of five clarinet players and five saxophone players. The embouchure force measurements at the lower lip area were assessed using a piezoresistive sensor (FlexiForceTM, Tekscan, Boston, USA, 0.07 kgf/cm2) placed on the lower part of the mouthpiece of the single reed instrument. Furthermore, each participant performed three times three different notes at different pitches: high, medium, and low. An intraoral device was manufactured in order to dissipate the existing pressures. Results The piezoresistive sensors applied to the mouthpiece of the five clarinetists presented values between 16 and 226 g of force. In the case of the five saxophonists, the values registered were between 5 and 320 g of force. Conclusions Piezoresistive sensors are a valid option to characterize that single reed instrumentalists apply substantial forces at the lower lip that can be equivalent to medium orthodontic forces. The implementation of the Lip Pressure Appliance can be a valid solution on the prevention of eventual lesions resulting from the embouchure forces.

Background/objective: Playing a wind instrument implies rhythmic jaw movements where the embouchure applies forces with different directions and intensities towards the orofacial structures. These features are relevant when comparing the differences between a clarinettist and a saxophone player embouchure, independently to the fact that both belong to the single-reed instrument group, making therefore necessary to update the actual classification. Methods: Lateral cephalograms were taken to single-reed, double-reed and brass instrumentalists with the purpose of analyzing the relationship of the mouthpiece and the orofacial structures. Results: The comparison of the different wind instruments showed substantial differences. Therefore the authors purpose a new classification of wind instruments: Class 1 single-reed mouthpiece, division 1– clarinet, division 2 –saxophone; Class 2 double-reed instruments, division 1– oboe, division 2– bassoon; Class 3 cup-shaped mouthpiece, division 1– trumpet and French horn, division 2- trombone and tuba; Class 4 aperture mouthpieces, division 1– flute, division 2 – transversal flute and piccolo. Conclusions: Elements such as dental arches, teeth and lips, assume vital importance at a new nomenclature and classification of woodwind instruments that were in the past mainly classified by the type of mouthpiece and not taking into consideration its relationship with their neighboring structures.

Abstract Background Current clinical practice during high-flow nasal therapy (HFNT) involves utilization of a nasal cannula to provide humidification, with a facemask placed over the cannula to deliver aerosol. Few studies have compared aerosol delivery across various delivery interfaces during HFNT. The objective of this study was to address this gap in the literature and evaluate aerosol delivery using two nebulizer types across different drug delivery interfaces, nasal cannula, facemask, and mouthpiece, during simulated adult HFNT. Methods A facemask or mouthpiece and/or a nasal cannula were positioned on an anatomically correct adult head model. The head model was connected to a breathing simulator via a collection filter. Both healthy breathing pattern and distressed breathing patterns were utilized. Aerosol dose was determined by quantifying the mass of drug captured on a filter positioned distal to the trachea. Results During simulated healthy breathing, a significantly greater aerosol dose was observed when the vibrating mesh nebulizer (VMN) was integrated with HFNT alone, supplying aerosol and humidified air simultaneously (2.88 ± 0.15%), as opposed to using with a facemask (0.33 ± 0.07%, 1.62 ± 0.46%, and 1.07 ± 0.25% at 0 L/min (LPM), 2LPM, and 6LPM, respectively) or mouthpiece (0.56 ± 0.13%, 2.16 ± 0.06%, and 1.82 ± 0.41% at 0LPM, 2LPM, and 6LPM). In addition, aerosol delivery was also significantly greater when the VMN was integrated into simulated HFNT (2.88 ± 0.15%), in comparison with using the jet nebulizer (JN) with a facemask (0.82 ± 0.16%) or a mouthpiece (0.86 ± 0.11%). During simulated distressed breathing, a significantly greater aerosol dose was observed when the VMN was integrated with HFNT, supplying aerosol and humidified air simultaneously (6.81 ± 0.45%), compared with using a facemask (0.86 ± 0.04%, 2.96 ± 0.26%, and 4.23 ± 0.93% at 0LPM, 2LPM, and 6LPM) or mouthpiece (0.73 ± 0.37%, 0.97 ± 0.20%, and 3.11 ± 0.53% at 0LPM, 2LPM, and 6LPM, respectively). Aerosol delivery was also greater when the VMN was integrated into HFNT (6.81 ± 0.45%), in comparison with using the JN with a facemask (5.72 ± 0.71%) or a mouthpiece (0.69 ± 0.53%). Furthermore, across all drug delivery interfaces, and in line with previous reports, aerosol delivery was greater during simulated distressed breathing, in comparison with simulated healthy adult breathing. Conclusions This article will be of considerable benefit in enhancing the understanding of aerosol delivery during HFNT, an increasingly adopted therapeutic intervention by healthcare professionals.

There are variations in the values reported for aerosol drug delivery across in vitro experiments throughout the published literature, and often with the same devices or similar experimental setups. Factors contributing to this variability include, but are not limited to device type, equipment settings, drug type and quantification methods. This study assessed the impact of head model choice on aerosol drug delivery using six different adults and three different paediatric head models in combination with a facemask, mouthpiece, and high-flow nasal cannula. Under controlled test conditions, the quantity of drug collected varied depending on the choice of head model. Head models vary depending on a combination of structural design differences, facial features (size and structure), internal volume measurements and airway geometries and these variations result in the differences in aerosol delivery. Of the widely available head models used in this study, only three were seen to closely predict in vivo aerosol delivery performance in adults compared with published scintigraphy data. Further, this testing identified the limited utility of some head models under certain test conditions, for example, the range reported across head models was aerosol drug delivery of 2.62 ± 2.86% to 37.79 ± 1.55% when used with a facemask. For the first time, this study highlights the impact of head model choice on reported aerosol drug delivery within a laboratory setting and contributes to explaining the differences in values reported within the literature.

This randomized trial aimed to compare the safety and efficacy of the GAGLESS mouthpiece for esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) with that of the conventional mouthpiece. In all, 90 participants were divided into the GAGLESS mouthpiece and conventional mouthpiece groups. The primary endpoint was the severity of pain using the visual analog scale (VAS), and secondary endpoints were examination time, past history of endoscopy, success of the procedure, systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, oxygen saturation, pulse rate before and after EGD, and adverse events. Endoscopy was completed in all cases, and no complications were observed. VAS, when passing the scope through the pharynx, was 2.5 ± 2.4 and 2.0 ± 1.9 cm (p = 0.24) in the conventional and GAGLESS groups, respectively, and that, throughout the examination, was 2.5 ± 2.4 and 1.7 ± 1.5 cm (p = 0.06), respectively. The difference in blood pressure between the GAGLESS and conventional groups was not significant for SBP (p = 0.08) and significant for DBP (p = 0.03). The post-EGD difference in DBP was significantly lower in the GAGLESS group than in the conventional group. The results indicate that GAGLESS mouthpieces had a lower VAS during endoscopy than the conventional mouthpieces, and the changes in blood pressure were smaller with the GAGLESS mouthpiece.

This paper outlines a defense of the project of seeking to interpret Plato’s political thought as a valid method of interpreting Plato. It does so in two stages: in the first part, by rebutting denials of the possibility of interpreting Plato’s thought at all; in the second part, by identifying one set of ideas arguably central to Plato’s political thought, namely, his profound rejection of political anarchy, understood in terms of the absence of the authority of officeholders and posited both as characteristic of democracy and as the origin of tyranny. This approach to anarchy and its relationship to tyranny is, I contend, a Platonic innovation (so far as we can judge from surviving texts), and must be understood against the background of Greek writings that straightforwardly opposed the two. I aim here to show, on the one hand, that denying tout court the project of seeking to interpret Plato’s political thought is an implausibly extreme position, and, on the other, that pursuing that project can bear valuable fruit.

OBJETIVO: Este estudo teve como objetivo comparar a força muscular respiratória (FMR) obtida por meio de manovacuômetros analógicos, utilizando diferentes tipos de bocais e traqueias. METODOLOGIA: Foram avaliados 50 voluntários sedentários ou insuficientemente ativos saudáveis (25 homens e 25 mulheres), com média de idade de 25 ± 5 anos, média de altura de 167 ± 8 cm e média de peso de 65 ± 12 kg, pertencentes à comunidade de São Carlos, SP, e região. Para a avaliação da FMR foram realizadas as medidas de pressão inspiratória máxima (PI MÁX) e pressão expiratória máxima (PE MÁX) de acordo com o método preconizado por Black e Hyatt (1969). Os voluntários foram submetidos à anamnese e exame físico, e, posteriormente, as pressões respiratórias máximas foram medidas com os indivíduos em posição ortostática, utilizando-se dois manovacuômetros analógicos com limite operacional de ± 300 cmH2O, com uso de clipe nasal, um bocal circular e um retangular, com traqueias de mesmo comprimento e diâmetros internos diferentes, sendo estes de 1 cm e 1,5 cm. RESULTADOS: Observou-se que não houve diferenças significativas (Teste de Wilcoxon: p < 0,05) entre os diâmetros das traqueias, e que os valores obtidos da PE MÁX com o bocal retangular foram significativamente maiores em ambos os sexos. CONCLUSÃO: Os resultados deste estudo mostram que não houve interferência dos diâmetros das traqueias nos valores obtidos de PE MÁX e PI MÁX, no entanto, os tipos de bocais utilizados no manovacuômetro analógico interferem nos valores obtidos de PE MÁX. O formato mais anatômico do bocal retangular colaborou para a obtenção de maiores valores de PE MÁX.