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Background and purpose: Aedes mosquitoes, especially Aedes aegypti and A. albopictus, due to their special biological and ecological characteristics, have high adaptability and establishment power in different weather conditions, including Iran, and for this reason, they are called invasive mosquitoes. These mosquitoes, which are known as a serious problem for human health, are very important in terms of transmission of very important arboviral diseases such as dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika virus, and yellow fever. Considering the importance of these diseases on the health system and human health, as well as numerous reports of the spread of arboviral diseases through Aedes mosquitoes in different countries, various programs have been proposed to control Aedes mosquitoes. As a result, introducing suitable methods to control Aedes mosquitoes can play a significant role in reducing the transmission of these diseases and maintaining human health. Therefore, in this review, we evaluate the use of each of the Aedes mosquito control methods. Materials and methods: This article is a narrative review of the introduction and effectiveness of different methods of controlling Aedes mosquitoes. Collecting information about control methods of A. aegypti and A. albopictus has been compiled without time and language restrictions from international scientific databases including Pub Med, Web of Science, Google Scholar, (ScienceDirect, Scopus, Elsevier, Lilacs) and Internal databases including, Scientific Information Database(SID), Iranian Medical Library(MedLib), Magiran, Civilica. The information collected based on the performance of each of the mentioned methods was extracted, categorized, analyzed, and used in compiling this article. Finally, out of a total of 10202 extracted articles, 123 articles were used in this research considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: In general, the goals related to the use of different methods of controlling Aedes mosquitoes are different depending on the country, epidemiological conditions, resources, and local priorities. But overall, disease prevention, reduction of mosquito population, stopping of disease transmission, prevention of mosquito establishment, disease spread, reduction of nuisances and finally identification of new invasive species are prioritized. The most appropriate methods of controlling Aedes are divided into five categories: 1. Environmental methods that include reducing the habitats and growth resources of mosquitoes 2. Chemical methods that are based on the use of various insecticides chemicals and insect growth regulators 3. Mechanical methods that include the use of various traps 4. Biological methods that include the use of natural enemies 5. Genetic methods include genetic engineering and mosquito sterilization techniques. It should be noted that each of these methods can play a significant role in the establishment of Aedes mosquitoes and the spread of arboviral diseases, and as a result, reducing the number of cases of infection and death in the health system. Conclusion: Considering the introduction of different control methods for A. aegypti and A. albopictus and the priority of each of the control methods presented; it is important to mention that the method of controlling Aedes depends a lot on the environmental conditions of the region, the stage of mosquito establishment, the population phase of mosquitoes and diseases caused by it. Therefore implementation of Aedes mosquito control programs through integrated vector management strategy is recommended, which requires the effective collaboration and coordination of national and local authorities and the general public for cost-effective control and lasting effects.

Abstract Background Aedes aegypti is the main vector of arboviral diseases worldwide. The species invaded and became established in southern Iran in 2020. Insecticide-based interventions are primarily used for its control. With insecticide resistance widespread, knowledge of resistance mechanisms is vital for informed deployment of insecticidal interventions, but information from Iranian Ae. aegypti is lacking. Methods Fifty-six Ae. aegypti specimens were collected from the port city of Bandar Lengeh in Hormozgan Province in the South of Iran in 2020 and screened for kdr mutations. The most common kdr mutations in Latin America and Asia (V410L, S989P, V1016G/I and F1534C), especially when present in combinations, are highly predictive of DDT and pyrethroid resistance were detected. Phylogenetic analyses based on the diversity of S989P and V1016G/I mutations were undertaken to assess the phylogeography of these kdr mutations. Results Genotyping all four kdr positions of V410L, S989P, V1016G/I and F1534C revealed that only 16 out of the 56 (28.57%) specimens were homozygous wild type for all kdr mutation sites. Six haplotypes including VSVF (0.537), VSVC (0.107), LSVF (0.016), LSIF (0.071), VPGC (0.257) and LPGC (0.011) were detected in this study. For the first time, 11 specimens harbouring the V410L mutation, and 8 samples with V1016I mutation were found. V410L and V1016I were coincided in 8 specimens. Also, six specimens contained 1016G/I double mutation which was not reported before. Conclusions The relatively high frequency of these kdr mutations in Iranian Ae. aegypti indicates a population exhibiting substantial resistance to pyrethroid insecticides, which are used widely in control operations and household formulations. The detection of the 410L/1016I kdr mutant haplotype in Iranian Ae. aegypti suggests possible convergence of invasive populations from West Africa or Latin America. However, as Iran has very limited maritime/air connections with those African countries, a Latin American origin for the invasive Ae. aegypti in Iran is more plausible. Graphical abstract

Background and purpose: Dengue fever has become a major public health problem in many regions of the world due to increased trade and travel and problems in controlling Aedes vectors. The purpose of this policy brief is to review, analyze and present evidence-based policies for dengue prevention and control. Materials and methods: The present research is a systematic review in order to compile a policy brief in Iran, which was carried out in 3 stages according to its methodology. In the first stage, the justification and description of the problem was done in a systematic manner and by examining scientific documents through searching in national and international scientific databases, websites, guidelines and books. In the second stage, a draft of the priority elements related to the policy framework was prepared by the first author and discussed with the other authors. In the third stage, the draft questions were categorized and summarized, and then the policies were compiled in close discussion with all authors. Results: According to the recommendations of the best available evidence in the literature, five policy options were presented for the prevention and control of dengue fever, including 1- development of basic, applied and innovative research 2- Strengthening the capacity and capability of the human, infrastructural and health system in all relevant sectors for the surveillance, control, monitoring and evaluation 3- strengthening inter- and intra-sectoral coordination and collaboration 4- community engagement and mobilization 5- scaling up of functions and integrating tools. Conclusion: In order to increase the long-term impact of policies, it is recommended to use an integrated approach with the continuous support of all stakeholders (local, national, regional).

Abstract Mosquitoes are the most important vectors of serious infectious diseases in the world. Dengue, Zika, chikungunya and yellow fever are emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, associated with the distribution of two key vectors i.e. Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus throughout the world including countries neighbouring Iran. Entomological surveillance was planned and performed monthly from May to December during 2014–2020 in selected counties of Mazandaran Province, North of Iran, by ovitrap, larval collection, hand catch and human baited trap. Overall, 4410 Aedes specimens including 2376 larvae (53.9%) and 2034 (46.1%) adults belonging to six species, namely Aedes vexans, Aedes geniculatus, Aedes caspius, Aedes echinus, Aedes pulcritarsis and Aedes flavescence were collected and morphologically identified. Over the seven years of surveillance, Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were not found by any sampling method. Aedes vexans and Ae. geniculatus were the most abundant species, their populations peaked in October and November and was positively correlated with precipitation and relative humidity. Aedes flavescence was a new species record for the province. A flowchart for planning and implementation of invasive mosquito surveillance for provincial health authorities in the country is proposed. These surveillance efforts provide basic and timely information for the health system to act promptly on integrated and intensified surveillance and control programs should Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus detected in the province.

Background: Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) are blood-sucking insects that bite humans usually at night and cause nui­sance, psychological and social problems. These insects are considered a health hazard in densely populated places such as prisons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the knowledge, attitude and practice of inmates, soldiers, and prison staff regarding bed bugs in Mazandaran prisons. Methods: This is a descriptive-analytical study in which 450 inmates and 210 staff (105 personnel and 105 soldiers) from prisons of Mazandaran Province were included in the study. Data on knowledge, attitude, and practice of the par­ticipants regarding bed bugs were collected using a structured questionnaire. To determine the relative content validity coefficient, the questionnaire was assessed by 10 specialists in terms of difficulty, inappropriateness, and ambiguity of the phrases. The reliability of the questionnaire was measured using Cronbach's Alpha and then the data were analyzed using SPSS software version 20. Results: The maximum mean scores of knowledges, attitude, and practice between the three target groups were 16.42%, 44.07% and 71.21% respectively. Prison staff had the highest knowledge and practice, and inmates showed the highest attitude regarding bed bugs. There was no significant difference between the knowledge and attitude of inmates, prison staff and soldiers (P> 0.05) but there was a significant difference in their practice (P< 0.05). Conclusion: Results of this study confirmed that all three groups of people in the prisons need appropriate education regarding all aspects of bed bug including its control.

Background and purpose: The knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of healthcare workers are important to reduce the transmission and burden of dengue. There is no standard tool to assess KAP of healthcare workers about dengue in Mazandaran Province, Iran, so this study was conducted to design and assess the validity and reliability of a questionnaire in Persian assessing KAP of healthcare workers about these mosquito-borne viral disease. Materials and methods: In this descriptive analytical study, a preliminary questionnaire containing 81 questions was designed after reviewing articles and interviews with experts. To determine the validity of the scale, quantitative-qualitative face and content validity were measured, and Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to assess the reliability. Results: In the study of face validity and qualitative content, experts' opinions were applied to the items as minor changes. The Impact Score (IS) of all items were higher than 1.5 (1.5-5) which provided supports for items importance. Content validity, based on the Lawshe table, optimal value of content validity ratio (CVR), and content validity index (CVI) were 0.6 and higher than 0.8, respectively. All items except one that was removed, obtained the desired score and were retained in the scale. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.79 which showed that all items had an acceptable correlation. Conclusion: This study provided a reliable and valid tool in Persian to assess KAP of healthcare workers about dengue in Mazandaran Province, north of Iran and can be used for measuring dengue KAP by Iranian researchers.

BackgroundDengue fever is a rapidly emerging infection worldwide with a high public health burden. Adequate training of healthcare workers is essential to warrant the timely provision of health services to improve the outcome of dengue management.MethodsThis is an analytical cross-sectional study, conducted to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practice (KAP) of healthcare workers regarding dengue from April 2021 to March 2022 in Mazandaran Province, northern Iran. Data was collected using a researcher-made structured questionnaire, prepared as Google Forms, and sent to target groups through social media and email. Data analysis was performed by SPSS 22 software using descriptive and inferential statistics (Chi-square) at a significant level of 5%.ResultsMost of the respondents had heard about dengue (83.8%); media (32.7%) and academic education (25%) were the main sources of information. Respondents had less knowledge associated with dengue symptoms (52%) than prevention and control (69%), transmission (72.2%) and clinical management (81%). Based on the 70% cut-off point, the majority of the participants had a good attitude (81%) and practice (73%). However, only 49.6% of the respondents showed good practice regarding dengue local transmission. A significant difference was observed between participants knowledge on clinical management with occupation; attitude with gender and occupation; and practice with gender (p

Abstract Background Water pollution due to uncontrolled release of chemical pollutants is an important global problem. Its effect on medically important insects, especially mosquitoes, is a critical issue in the epidemiology of mosquito-borne diseases. Methods In order to understand the effect of water pollutants on the demography of Anopheles stephensi, colonies were reared in clean, moderately and highly polluted water for three consecutive generations at 27 °C, 75% RH, and a photoperiod of 12:12 h (L:D). The demographic data of the 4th generation of An. stephensi were collected and analysed using the age-stage, two-sex life table. Results The intrinsic rate of increase (r), finite rate of increase (λ), mean fecundity (F) and net reproductive rate (R 0) of An. stephensi in clean water were 0.2568 d−1, 1.2927 d−1, 251.72 eggs, and 109.08 offspring, respectively. These values were significantly higher than those obtained in moderately polluted water (r = 0.2302 d−1, λ = 1.2589 d−1, 196.04 eggs, and R 0 = 65.35 offspring) and highly polluted water (r = 0.2282 d−1, λ = 1.2564 d−1, 182.45 eggs, and R 0 = 62.03 offspring). Female adult longevity in moderately polluted (9.38 days) and highly polluted water (9.88 days) were significantly shorter than those reared in clean water (12.43 days), while no significant difference in the male adult longevity was observed among treatments. Conclusions The results of this study showed that An. stephensi can partially adapt to water pollution and this may be sufficient to extend the range of mosquito-borne diseases.

Background and purpose: Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) are major human ectoparasites. Before planning and implementation of any control measures against bed bugs in prisons, it is essential to determine the infestation rate. Materials and methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was performed to determine the prevalence of bed bug infestation in prisons in Mazandaran Province, 2015-2017. A standard checklist was prepared based on the health log of the prisons and was used to collect information on prevalence of bed bugs. Data were analyzed using SPSS V20. Results: The highest rate of infestation (68%) was observed in general ward and the lowest was seen in women's ward (1.23%). Highest infestations were reported at nights (88%) and the highest numbers of bed bugs were collected in metal beds (31%). During three years, there were no reports of bed bugs and their bites in prison 6. The average prevalence was constant in prison 1, while it was descending in prisons 2, 3, 5, and 9 and ascending in prisons 4 and 8. Conclusion: High prevalence of bed bugs in most of the prisons in Mazandaran province could probably be due to their entry into the prisons, re-infestation, and also difficulties in their control. Therefore, continuous monitoring of infestation, monitoring and prevention of bed bugs gaining entry into prisons, revising control measures with collaboration between experts from the Ministry of Health and prison health services are essential to plan for successful bed bug control interventions.

Background: Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors of Leishmania species, the causative agents of leishmaniasis in the world. Present study aimed to evaluate the bioecological aspects of sand flies in different ecotopes in Sari County, north of Iran. Methods: Sand flies were collected from four villages in mountainous, forest, plain and peri-urban areas monthly using sticky traps in May–October 2016. Mounted specimens were identified using valid identification keys under optical microscope. The Arc GIS 10.5 software was applied for showing the distribution of sand flies. Shannon-Weiner, Simp­son and Evenness species diversity indices were calculated. Results: Generally, 334 specimens were captured and identified, namelly Phlebotomus kandelakii, Ph. papatasi, Ph. major, Ph. sergenti, Ph. longiductus, Ph. halepensis, Ph. tobbi, Sergentomyia dentata, Se. theodori, Se. sintoni, Se. an­tennata and Se. sumbarica. The most common species was Ph. kandelakii (n= 128, 38.32 %). The highest Simpson in­dex (0.81) and abundance (N= 141) were recorded in the mountaineous area. Shannon diversity index was higher in the forest (H'= 1.53) and the highest evenness index was in the plain area (J'= 0.93). The highest richness (S= 9) and Shan­non indices (H'= 1.57) were observed in June. Conclusions: Phlebotomus kandelakii, Ph. sergenti, Ph. tobbi, Ph. longiductus, Se. theodori, Se. antennata and Se. sumbarica were recorded for the first time in the study area. Since some species are incriminated for leishmaniasis transmission, further studies are required in the northern regions of Iran to timely control measures planning.

BackgroundArboviral diseases such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya are transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Ae albopictus and are emerging global public health concerns. ObjectiveThis study aimed to provide up-to-date data on the occurrence of the invasive Aedes species in a given area as this is essential for planning and implementing timely control strategies. MethodsEntomological surveillance was planned and carried out monthly from May 2018 to December 2019 at higher-priority entry points in Guilan Province, Northern Iran, using ovitraps, larval collection, and human-baited traps. Species richness (R), Simpson (D), evenness (E), and Shannon-Wiener indexes (H̕) were measured to better understand the diversity of the Aedes species. The Spearman correlation coefficient and regression models were used for data analysis. ResultsWe collected a total of 3964 mosquito samples including 17.20% (682/3964) belonging to the Aedes species, from 3 genera and 13 species, and morphologically identified them from May 2018 to December 2019. Ae vexans and Ae geniculatus, which showed a peak in activity levels and population in October (226/564, 40.07% and 26/103, 25.2%), were the eudominant species (D=75.7%; D=21.2%) with constant (C=100) and frequent (C=66.7%) distributions, respectively. The population of Ae vexans had a significant positive correlation with precipitation (r=0.521; P=.009) and relative humidity (r=0.510; P=.01), whereas it was inversely associated with temperature (r=−0.432; P=.04). The Shannon-Wiener Index was up to 0.84 and 1.04 in the city of Rasht and in July, respectively. The rarefaction curve showed sufficiency in sampling efforts by reaching the asymptotic line at all spatial and temporal scales, except in Rasht and in October. ConclusionsAlthough no specimens of the Ae aegypti and Ae albopictus species were collected, this surveillance provides a better understanding of the native Aedes species in the northern regions of Iran. These data will assist the health system in future arbovirus research, and in the implementation of effective vector control and prevention strategies, should Ae aegypti and Ae albopictus be found in the province.

Background and purpose: Control of bedbugs (Cimex lectularius) as important human pests often fails in places where people live in aggregation such as prisons. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of various methods of bedbug control in prisons in Mazandaran province, Iran. Materials and methods: In this descriptive-analytical study performed in 2018, routine control methods of bedbugs including spraying, environmental management, fogging, and flame and combinations of two methods were compared. Data analyses were carried out using two methods. In first method, the number of bites before the control program along with that of four monitoring periods (15 days interval) after the interventions normalized with the population of the prison was analyzed. In second method, we analyzed the data from four monitoring phases after the control operation without considering the population of prisons. Results: Environmental management plus flame were the pair of control intervention with highest impact on bedbug population in prisons. Based on first method of analysis, there was a significant difference in number of individuals bitten between various control methods in all prisons (P0.05). Conclusion: Environmental sanitation of prison wards plus flame was found to have the greatest impact on bedbug population over a period of one month. Where it is not possible to use flame, combined methods, including spraying-environmental sanitation or fogging-environmental sanitation can be used as effective alternatives in reducing bedbug population in prisons.

Aims: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is one of the most important health problems in Iran. The aim of this study was to investigate all aspects of the epidemiology of the disease, including examination of patients, the rate and nature of the disease, and the development of different forms of disease during 2009–2018 in Gonbad-e-Kavus, Northern Iran. Materials and Methods: This descriptive study was performed using epidemiological data, including demographic and clinical features collected from 5638 patients diagnosed with leishmaniasis in health centers affiliated to the Deputy of Health Center of Golestan University of Medical Sciences during 2009–2018. Results: A total number of 5638 individuals were diagnosed with CL over a 10-year period. Considering the population of Golestan, the incidence rate was reported as 137 per 100,000 populations. It was also revealed that most of the cases of CL (86/23%) lived in the villages and the majority of patients (21/46%) were in the age group of 1–4. In addition, most ulcers were observed in the hand (37.7%) and foot (33.1%), respectively. Most of the patients had multiple wounds on the body. The highest incidence was reported in November and the lowest in May. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the endemicity of disease in Gonbad-e-Kavus city during the 10-year study period 2009–2018 was high compared to the average incidence rate of CL in Iran. Therefore, monitoring and emphasizing disease control methods to eliminate leishmaniasis in this city are essential.

Background and Objectives: Scorpion’s sting has created one of the most significant health and medical issues in Iran. Lack of sufficient knowledge of the fauna and the seasonal activity of scorpions in an area poses a serious challenge to the control programs. Each year, several cases of scorpion sting are reported in Qaenat county. In this regard, the present study aimed to identify and determine the fauna and scorpions of this region. Methods: This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on the scorpions that were caught using Ultra-Violet (UV) light, pitfall traps, and hand-catching methods every month in Qaenat City in South Khorasan Province in Iran during 2017. After their capture, the scorpions were stored in plastic containers of glycerin and 70% ethanol and were identified using a valid morphological key. Results: A total of 912 scorpion specimens from the buthidae family were collected, including six species of Mesobuthus eupeus, Androctonus crassicauda, Orthochirus scrobiculosus, Compsobuthus matthiesseni, Mesobuthus caucasicus, and Odontobuthus doriae. M. eupeus and O. doriae had the highest (60.96%) and lowest (0.88%) frequencies, respectively. Moreover, most of the scorpions were collected in December in rural areas, while the least number of them were collected in May. Conclusion: Due to the diversity of scorpion species in the studies region, it is essential to educate and raise the awareness of individuals living in this region about methods of preventing scorpion stings.

Background: Seasonal activity patterns of mosquitoes are essential as baseline knowledge to understand the transmis­sion dynamics of vector-borne diseases. This study was conducted to evaluate the monthly dynamics of the mosquito populations and their relation to meteorological factors in Mazandaran Province, north of Iran. Methods: Mosquito adults and larvae were collected from 16 counties of Mazandaran Province using different sam­pling techniques, once a month from May to December 2014. “Index of Species Abundance” (ISA) along with “Stand­ardized ISA” (SISA) was used for assessing the most abundant species of mosquitoes based on the explanations of Rob­ert and Hsi. Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) was used to assess the relationships between the monthly population fluctuations and meteorological variables. Results: Overall, 23750 mosquitoes belonging to four genera and nineteen species were collected and identified. The highest population density of mosquitoes was in July and the lowest in May. The ISA/SISA indices for Culex pipiens were both 1 for larvae and 1.25/0.973 for adults in total catch performed in human dwellings. For Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, the ISA/SISA were 1.68/0.938 in pit shelter method. A significant positive correlation was observed between population fluctuations of Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and mean temperature (R: 0.766, P< 0.027). Conclusions: The results indicated that the mosquitoes are more active in July, and Cx. pipiens and Cx. tritaeniorhyn­chus were the most abundant species. Considering the potential of these species as vectors of numerous pathogens, con­trol programs can be planed based on their monthly activity pattern in the area.

Background and purpose: Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of many pathogens such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and so on. The control of mosquitoes using chemical insecticides is not always a sensible approach, so, alternative biological control methods, especially the use of larvivorous fishes, can play a significant role in controlling of mosquito larvae. Materials and Methods: In this narrative review study, papers and dissertations were collected without time and language limits from international electronic databases in Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Ovid, Medline and WHO site, and Iranian scientific databases including: Barakatkns, SID, Civilica, Magiran, and Medlib using appropriate keywords from 1937 to 2018. Finally, 55 sources were selected and criticized, interpreted, and analyzed. Results: In the study, some of larvivorous fishes including Aphanius dispar, Carassius auratus (goldfish), Gambusia affinis, and Poecilia reticulate (guppy) have been investigated as important predators of mosquito larvae. Among these fish, Gambusia, Aphanius dispar, Colisa Lalia, Danio rerio, Goldfish, Guppy and Oreochromis mossambica are present in different regions of Iran. Conclusion: Given the fact that malaria carriers are present in many regions of Iran and the climate of Iran is also potentially suitable for the transmission of malaria, it is recommended to use larvivorous fishes that are compatible with the environmental conditions of each area.

Background and purpose: The leishmaniases are a group of diseases that appear as cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis, transmitted by different species of sand flies. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is considered as a major public health problem in Iran. The current study was carried out to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of CL in Mazandaran Province, Iran according to Geographical Information System (GIS). Materials and methods: This retrospective descriptive study was carried out according to demographic and epidemiologic data collected from patients diagnosed with CL during 2009-2017 recorded in Health deputy of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. The spatial and temporal distribution of CL in different cities of Mazandaran Province was mapped using ArcGIS 10.4 software. Results: The number of patients with CL was 378 during the years studied. The highest and lowest numbers of CL patients were seen in Sari and Abbas Abad, respectively (n=71, n=2, respectively). Most of the cases (n= 182) were reported in east of Mazandaran and the least number of cases (n= 73) were observed in the west of province. The incidence rate in the west of the province was lower than that of the center and east of the province. Conclusion: Distribution of CL in Iran, agricultural activities, livestock breeding, and migratory status in Mazandaran Province call for appropriate planning to control this disease.

Background and purpose: Scorpionism is a public health problem in Darmian City. This study was conducted to determine the biodiversity and faunistic of scorpions in order to discover the health preventive features of scorpion sting among the residents of these regions. Methods: A nightly and daily actively searching on distribution and biodiversity of scorpions was carried during April 2015 to March 2016 in Darmian, Iran. Results: A total of 685 scorpions including five species belonging to buthidae family were identified. The highest abundance was observed in warmer months, and Mesobuthus eupeus (54.5%) was the most abundant species. The researchers found a positive correlation between abundance and temperature and a negative correlation between abundance and humidity. The scorpions were observed with more nocturnal activity and were well-adapted with more abundance to the plain, rural, and outdoors environments. Regarding constancy index, all species except A. crassicauda were classified as constant species (C=100). There was no significant difference in the richness of scorpions in different time collections (day or night), geographical areas (plain or mountainous), regions collected (urban or rural), and places (indoors or outdoors). The Shannon and dominant indices were found to be not significantly different between mentioned sites except in time collection. Conclusions: Species composition of scorpions revealed that scorpions were constantly active throughout the year which can play an important role in sting events. So, familiarity of healthcare experts and indigenous people with existing species and their seasonal activities can largely reduce the risk of scorpion stings.

Background: Culex pipiens play an important role in transmission of infectious diseases. Vector control by chemi­cal pesticides, leads inevitably to resistance development. Understanding the underlying resistance mechanisms can help improve the control programmes and insecticide resistance management. Methods: The total contents of cytochrome p450s and the activities of glutathione S-transferases, alpha- and beta-esterases and inhibition rates of acetylcholine esterase (by propoxur) were measured in the field population of Cx. pipiens collected from Sari County, North of Iran, in 2016 and the results were compared with those of the laborato­ry susceptible strain according to the biochemical assay methods of WHO for adult mosquitoes. Independent sample t-test was used to compare the mean values of enzyme activities/contents between filed and laboratory susceptible popula­tions. Results: The enzyme ratio of cytochrome p450s, alpha- and beta-esterases in the field population was 2.07, 3.72 and 1.36 respectively when compared with the results of the laboratory population. Although not statistically significant, the mean GSTs activities in the field population was marginally less than the laboratory population (ER=0.92). Ace­tylcholinesterase was insensitive to propoxur in 62.82% of the individuals of the tested field population. There was a significant difference (P< 0.05) between all values of the activities/contents of the enzyme in the field population except for GSTs compared with the laboratory susceptible strain. The highest enzyme activity was related to alpha esterase. Conclusion: The present study showed a range of metabolic mechanisms, comprising p450s and esterases combined with target site insensitivity of AChE, contributing to organophosphate, carbamate and pyrethroid resistance in the field population of Cx. pipiens.

The current study aimed to explore the entomopathogenic fungi associated with the larvae of Chilo suppressalis Walker, a serious pest of rice, in northern Iran. The collected specimens were cultured and identified through morphological and molecular methods. The 38 specimens were identified by microscopic examination and genetic sequencing of the ITS region as follows: twenty-one isolates of Beauveria bassiana, five isolates of Akanthomyces lecanii, four isolates of Akanthomyces muscarious, three isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae, two isolates of Hirsutella subulata, two isolates of Trichoderma sp. and one isolate of Aspergillus sp. All the identified isolates were treated on the larvae through bioassay, evaluating the amount of hydrophobin and the activities of proteases, chitinases and lipase to find their virulence. Moreover, the percentage of thermotolerant and cold activity of the isolates were tested to determine their environmental persistence. The overall results revealed the isolates of B. bassiana, including BBRR1, BBAL1 and BBLN1 as the most virulent and environmental adaptive isolates among the fungi associated with C. suppressalis.

Characteristics of mosquito larval habitats are important in determining whether they can survive and successfully complete their developmental stages. Therefore, data on the ecological factors affecting mosquito density and abundance especially the physicochemical properties of water of their breeding sites, can possibly be helpful in implementing larval management programs. Mosquito larvae were collected using a standard 350 ml dipper from fixed habitats including: artificial pool, river edge, creek and etc, in 30 villages of 16 counties from May-December 2014. Water samples were collected during larval collection and temperature (°C), acidity (pH), turbidity (NTU), electrical conductivity (μS/cm), alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3), total hardness (mg/l), nitrate (mg/l), chloride (mg/l), phosphate (mg/l) and sulphate (mg/l) were measured using standard methods. Spearman correlation coefficient, Kruskal-Wallis test of nonparametric analysis, Chi-square (χ2) analysis, regression analysis and C8 interspecific correlation coefficient were used for data analysis. A total of 7,566 mosquito larvae belonging to 15 species representing three genera were collected from fixed larval breeding places. Culex pipiens was the dominant species except in four villages where An. maculipennis s.l. and Cx. torrentium were predominant. There was a significant positive correlation between the density of Cx. pipiens and electrical conductivity, alkalinity, total hardness and chloride, whereas no significant negative correlation was observed between physicochemical factors and larval density. The highest interspecific association of up to 0.596 was observed between An. maculipennis s.l/An. pseudopictus followed by up to 0.435 between An. maculipennis s.l/An. hyrcanus and An. hyrcanus/An. pseudopictus. The correlations observed between physicochemical factors and larval density, can possibly confirm the effect of these parameters on the breeding activities of mosquitoes, and may be indicative of the presence of certain mosquito fauna in a given region.

Abstract Background and purpose: Paederus associated dermatitis has always been considered as a health problem in the northern of Iran. Since until now, the traditional method and some corticosteroids have been used in the treatment of Paederus dermatitis (PD) and no comprehensive studies have been carried out on the new method of treatment. Therefore, this study was aimed to compare the anti-inflammatory effects of triamcinolone with placebo in treatment of PD. Materials and Methods: This randomized double-blind clinical trial was performed during 6 months period in the clinics of Sari and Neka, Iran. Experimental group received triamcinolone and control group received placebo. The therapeutic effects of topically applied triamcinolone in 15 dermatitis patients and 15 control subjects were compared. The study subjects were visited in three separate times in the 1st, 7th and 14th day of the treatment. The data were collected in the questionnaire and compared in both groups by introducing the data into SPSS 11 software and analyzed by means of χ 2 test. Results: A total of 15 patients, 10 and 5 cases were undertaken for treatment in the Sari and Neka Townships, respectively. 40% and 50% of the patients from Sari and Neka Townships had lesion size 6-10 cm2, respectively. In this study, 90% and 100% of the patients from Sari and Neka had complete recovery 7 days after treatment, respectively. Statistical analysis indicated a significant difference between the case and control groups (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Insignificant difference was observed for treatment between the patients from the two Townships under study.

Introduction and purpose: Fleas are ectoparasites of birds and mammals. In addition to causing harassment due to their bites, these insects transmit some diseases, such as plague, endemic typhus, and tularemia, to humans. The present study aimed to identify the species and biodiversity of important fleas in Neka City (Mazandaran Province, Iran). The present research followed a descriptive-analytical approach. Methods: The sampling was performed for one year, from April to March 2022, in the rural areas of Neka City. In this study, 15 villages were randomly selected according to the geographic location of the north, south, east, west, and center. Different methods, including hand catch, human bait, and spreading white cloth, were employed to collect fleas. The collected samples were preserved in closed tubes containing 70% alcohol. After clarification and mounting in the laboratory, they were identified using validated identification keys. Results: A total of 2600 fleas were caught in this study, involving Ctenocephalides canis (30.93%), Ctenocephalides felis (57.54%), and Pulex irritans (11.53%) species. Among them, 33.12% were male, and 66.89% were female. The dominant species among the caught fleas was Ctenocephalides felis, and the majority of the collected fleas were caught in the Estakhr Posht village. Furthermore, the highest number of fleas caught was associated with the mountainous climate and occurred during spring. Conclusion: The results revealed that Ctenoscephalides felis is the dominant and most abundant species in Neka City, Iran, which can be considered a health concern. Therefore, their presence and frequency should be considered a serious issue, and appropriate control measures should be made.

Plague is an important and serious zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. This study is a narrative review. The required data for the research were gathered through a search in search engines such as Google Scholar and international scientific databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Elsevier, and Lilacs, as well as Persian databases like the Barakat Knowledge Network System (Barakatkns), the Scientific Information Database (SID), the Iranian Medical Library (Medlib), and Civilica. The search was conducted using both Persian and English keywords, including "Plague," "Yersinia pestis," "Plague outbreak," "Flea," and "Control," through individual and combined searches over a period from 1974 to June 2024. In the present article, the agents and types of plague, its transmission methods, diagnostic approaches, the status of plague in the world and Iran, fleas in Iran, and methods for prevention and control of the disease will be discussed. This disease has caused three major historical pandemics, including the Black Death in the 14th century, which claimed millions of lives in Europe, Asia, and Africa and profoundly affected the populations of the impacted countries. Recently, the highest number of human plague cases has been reported from Madagascar. The main vector of the disease in humans is known as Xenopsylla cheopis worldwide. In Iran, records of human plague date back to the past. Climate change and ecological shifts may influence the distribution of plague vectors and hosts, increasing the risk of its resurgence even in areas where the disease is currently dormant. In Iran, increasing interactions between human communities and wildlife, along with changes in agricultural practices influenced by climatic factors, could facilitate the spread of the plague. Reports of the pathogen in rodents and dogs in western Iran (Kurdistan and Hamadan) underscore the significance of the potential re-emergence of plague in the region. There are three clinical forms of this disease bubonic, septicemic, and pulmonary. The most common type of plague is bubonic plague, which occurs following the bite of a flea that has previously fed on an infected animal. It presents with symptoms including fever, headache, chills, weakness, fatigue, and swollen, inflamed lymph nodes. Delayed treatment increases the risk of mortality associated with the disease. Plague, with a history of horror and devastation, remains a global health challenge. Understanding the current situation of this disease and reviewing its prevention and control is very important to prevent its re-emergence. Considering the current plague situation in Iran, there is a need for continuous monitoring and more detailed studies on the ecology of vectors, as well as the development of effective strategies for disease control and prevention. International cooperation in scientific research and exchanging information about plague outbreaks and control strategies are among the other effective approaches in this field. Finally, strengthening the health infrastructure and developing educational programs for the community is one of the most important requirements to prevent the spread of plague and other infectious diseases in Iran.

Background and Purpose: Dengue fever has become a major public health problem in many world regions due to increased trade, travel, and problems controlling Aedes vectors. This policy brief aims to review, analyze, and present evidence-based policies for dengue prevention and control. Materials and Methods: The present research is a compilation of a policy brief in Iran, carried out in 3 stages according to its methodology. In the first stage, the problem’s justification and description were provided systematically by examining scientific documents by searching national and international scientific databases, websites, guidelines, and books. In the second stage, the first author prepared a draft of the priority elements related to the policy framework and discussed them with other authors. In the third stage, the draft questions were categorized and summarized, and subsequently, the policies were compiled in close discussion with all authors. Results: According to the recommendations of the best available evidence in the literature, 5 policy options were presented for the prevention and control of dengue fever as follows: 1) developing basic, applied, and innovative research; 2) strengthening the capacity and capability of the human, infrastructural, and health system in all relevant sectors for the surveillance, control, monitoring, and evaluation; 3) strengthening inter- and intra-sectoral coordination and collaboration; 4) community engagement and mobilization; and 5) scaling up of functions and integrating tools. Conclusion: To increase the long-term impact of policies, it is recommended to use an integrated approach with the continuous support of all stakeholders (local, national, and regional).

Background and purpose: Flies have a high diversity and are able to transmit many pathogens due to their adaptation and close relationship with humans. Therefore, this study was performed to identify the fauna of medically important flies in the city of Joybar in northern Iran. Materials and methods: This descriptive-analytical study was conducted twice a month in Juybar at selected sites, including hospital landfills, coastal waste, rural waste, municipal waste, and around a slaughterhouse in 2017. The flies were identified using valid identification keys and the species diversity parameters were evaluated based on Shannon index, Margalef index, and Evenness index. Results: In this study, seven species of medically important flies, including Muscina stabulans, Musca domestica, Lucilia caesar, Lucilia sericata, Calliphora vicina, Sarcophaga argyrostoma and Sarcophaga africa were caught from Muscidae, Calliphoridae, and Sarcophagidae families. According to Pearson correlation, the population of flies increases significantly (P

Introduction Flies due to transferring many of the pathogens, in different areas, especially in conditions temperate climates are medically important. The purpose of this study was to identify the species diversity of medically important flies in Ghaemshahr city. Materials and Methods This study was a descriptive-analytical survey from June of 2017 to May 2018 was carried out for one year. Plastic bottle traps With reverse span and insect netting were used for Captured flies. The flies were identified by validated keys after mounting. Results In this study, eight species of medically important flies including Lucilia sericata (6/2%), Lucilia Ceasar (19/9%), Calliphora vicina (2/6%), Sarcophaga variegata (4/6%), Sarcophaga africa (1/8%), Sarcophaga lehmanni (1/2%), Muscina stabulans (4/6%), and Musca domestica (51%) were hunted from three families of Muscidae (1869 number), Calliphoridae (965 number) and Sarcophagidae (258 number). The highest number of flies captured was in June (15/8%) and July (15/9%) and the lowest was in February (3%) and March (4/4%). Also, the highest number of flies captured were from rural areas (38.6%). Conclusion The diversity of flies and their abundance is high especially in June and July in Ghaemshahr city and more precise control measures should be done during this time.

Abstract Background and Aim: House flies are able to transmit pathogenic organisms from infected materials to human. The role of the flies in the transmission of many diseases has been demonstrated. This study was conducted to determine the bacterial contamination of M.domestica flies in various sources of Joybar city. Materials and Methods: A total of 384 household flies were collected from five sources including urban and rural solid wastes, hospital campus, coastal areas and slaughterhouses. Samples were transferred to the microbiology laboratory of the school of public health in some sterilized glass containers, and standard tests were carried out to isolate and identify bacterial species. Results: Escherichia coli was the dominant species in the samples. From all of the samples, 46% E.coli, 19% Staphylococcus aureus, 9.98% Staphylococcus epidermidis and 16.66% Enterobacter Aerogenus were isolated. Conclusion: The results of this study confirmed that the presence of these insects in the public places and different parts of the environment is regarded as a disturbing agent, and vector of pathogens. Since public spaces should not be a source of contamination, the implementation of the sanitation programs and control of these insects seems to be so necessary to create a safe and healthy environment.

Introduction and purpose: Scorpion stings can threaten human health. The investigation of the epidemiologic factors affecting scorpion stings plays an important role in the prevention of this public health issue. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the epidemiology of scorpionism in Qaenat city, South Khorasan Province, Iran. Methods: This retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted on all the stung people residing in Qaenat city of South Khorasan Province during 2011- 2016. The epidemiology of patients and demographic data were collected in a checklist and data were analyzed in SPSS (version 20). Results: A total of 164 cases stung by scorpion were enrolled in the present study, including 75 males (45.7%) and 89 females (54.3%). The most and least frequent cases of stung were observed among individuals within the age range of 25-34 and 55-64 years, respectively. Hands, head, and face were the most prevalent sting sites with the occur-rence rates of 56.7, 37.8, and 5.5%, respectively. Scorpion stings occurred mostly during spring and summer with the highest rate of 30% in July. Out of total cases, 46.3% were residing in urban areas and 53.7% in rural areas. Conclusion: Considering the fact that the highest occurrence rate of scorpion sting was observed in rural areas, educa-tional programs for all health and medical personnel as well as physicians of centers, promotion of public aware-ness in the city and village, improvement of places and rural roads can play an important role in the prevention of scorpionism and mortality.