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Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Latvia has been altering its language policy towards the Russian language as a language of national minority. The article describes the evolution of language-related laws, as well as the social and role of the Russian language in Latvia. The authors combined various methods of linguistics, history, and politics to establish the importance of the Russian language in Latvian education and socio-cultural life. The current language policy focuses on consolidation, self-identity, and historical memory of the Latvian population. The resulting social tension requires more diversity and inclusivity to maintain the balance between the languages and preserve the cultural heritage. Stronger language rights for ethnic minorities could improve the social development and unity of Latvia. Latvia’s experience is important for China as a multinational country as it strives to find a balance between promoting the state language and protecting the languages of national minorities. The study of Latvia’s modern language policy and its historical roots contributes to the mutual cooperation between Latvia and China in economics, education, and culture. A good understanding of the national language is a key factor for business communications and cultural exchange.

In this paper, I trace political and sociocultural change between two translation projects, Bibel 2000 and the "Sami Bible" of the Nordic Bible Societies. I suggest that the arguments that were made on the intended readership of Bibel 2000 in the 1960s and early 1970s reflect a monocultural and monolingual framework which was still a political and cultural reality at this time. Especially the importance of the national language (Swedish) and its connection to national identity underlying the arguments testify to this. In contrast, the Sami translation project of the Nordic Bible Societies, initiated in the 1980s, bears witness to changes towards multiculturalism and officially acknowledged multilingualism. I argue that these changes were an important impetus for this translation project, which also connects to a growing awareness of the importance of language for identity formation among the Sami people. Finally, I discuss the function of language as a “source of biblical authority” for both translation projects (Bibel 2000 and the Sami Bible), however in widely different respects. This enables me to place both translation projects as conceptualizations of “the Bible” in specific temporal contexts in the Swedish (and Nordic) postwar political landscape.

As part of the demands of a globalized and interconnected world, studying second languages has become a major priority. Bilingual programs implemented in recent decades have motivated an educational strategy in which content area courses are taught through L2. The potential costs of this strategy in academic performance are debated, especially in challenging areas such as mathematics. The present work systematically reviewed 71 papers based on experiments measuring mathematics performance in bilinguals in order to establish if bilinguals show a (dis)advantage in mathematics compared to monolinguals. The results of a total of 305,136 participants (57,703 bilinguals and 247,503 monolinguals) show that bilingualism does not seem to affect mathematical performance, but this is dependent on whether subjects are highly proficient bilinguals. This type of bilingual may only be affected by lower reaction times depending on the testing language. On the other hand, low language proficiency negatively impacts mathematical performance. Lastly, bilingualism enhances mathematical encoding and processes in non-language-related tasks.

This paper presents an observational study conducted at one of the South African Universities, which is undergoing a transformation aimed at acknowledging and incorporating indigenous languages. While the positive response to the Language Policy of Higher Education (LPHE) is laudable, certain aspects of this transformation still fail to recognize the importance of indigenous languages as sources of knowledge. The primary objective of this paper is to shed light on scenarios where multilingualism, specifically through translanguaging, is acknowledged and utilized to enhance students' comprehension of academic materials, particularly for non-speakers of Setswana who are learning the language for communicative purposes. The findings of a focus group discussion revealed that multilingual students possess valuable funds of knowledge that deserve recognition in teaching and learning contexts. Consequently, this paper emphasizes the necessity of recognizing and utilizing multilingualism not only for communicative purposes but also for academic purposes. It advocates for the adoption of a translanguaging approach in teaching and acknowledges students' language practices as a means to provide access to social justice for multilingual students. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of recognizing the role of multilingualism in academia and highlights the need to move beyond a solely communicative focus. By incorporating translanguaging practices and acknowledging students' diverse linguistic backgrounds, educational institutions can promote equitable access to education and foster social justice for multilingual learners.

The 2015 TIMSS and 2021 PIRLS results show the underachievement of our learners in reading comprehension, mathematics and science. Analysts of both assessments suggest the low performance is caused, chiefly, by the misalignment between learners’ home languages and the language of instruction. Even though today’s classrooms have become more and more culturally and linguistically diverse resulting in the majority of learners entering the classroom with a home language different from the language of instruction, the teaching of such learners still follows a monolingual trajectory. This has resulted in a drop- in the number of primary school learners exhibiting basic mathematics and scientific literacy in South Africa. Through semi-systemic review, the current study sought to explore the role language plays in concept comprehension among learners as well as examining the efficacy of translanguaging in mathematics and science classrooms. Eight studies were reviewed and results suggest that proficiency in the language of instruction plays a crucial role in comprehension of scientific and mathematical concepts. The study also shows the efficacy of translanguaging in enhancing the academic performance of learners and recommends the use of translanguaging within multilingual contexts.

The learned and cosmopolitan Europe of the 18th century, orphaned by the Latin of the clerics, gave French sufficient consideration to deem it capable of meeting the need for a universal language (Baggioni, 1997). This vision is based on epilinguistic judgements (Lodge, 2006), and representations of French's supposed elegance, rigour, precision, clarity and logic (Rivarol, 1966 [1784])). It also results from France's geopolitical position in Europe during this period. This conception, which is still present in contemporary common discourse, persists during the Revolution and will be reinforced in its universalist dimension. In addition to these representations of French transmitted by the 18th century, there was a political dimension born of the Revolutionaries' desire to make French the national language and the pivot of the nation. The extension of French is part of a vast political project in which French expresses and makes legible the national unity. In order to disseminate French throughout the country, a channel of transmission was needed, and this was the mission assigned to the school, which gave French a civilising mission that contributed to the stigmatisation of patois. Monolingualism spread to the entire population between the two world wars of the 20th century. This situation was reinforced by the process of mass schooling at the end of the 20th century, as indicated by the texts of the school curricula at the end of the 1990s, which combined the national language, the mother tongue and the language of schooling.

Translanguaging can be the latest all-embracing approach in language policy and assessment needed to substitute previous linguistic practices that treated languages as separate entities in a globalised world. This study is based on translanguaging by analysing activities that involved two cartoons in a multilingual classroom. This research was conducted to determine the opinions of Grade 12 EFAL learners on translanguaging by design activity in a multilingual setting. Grade 12 EFAL were chosen for their rich exposure to analysing cartoons. The class had 35 learners who were put in 5 focus groups to analyse the two cartoons. The 2017 cartoon had 5 questions and the 2018 cartoon had 4 questions, which learners answered in groups. The results indicate that translanguaging is an empowering tool that gives the learners a sense of ownership and belonging as they manipulate their previous linguistic knowledge to explore the given task. The teacher needs to alert the learners that they are free to use their home languages together with English to do an activity. This will help learners realise that there is not much difference between English and their home languages as they answer the questions. Teachers need to be multilingual so that they remain culturally and linguistically relevant to the learners.

This paper attempts to tackle a number of connected philosophical questions regarding the role of language in the debate surrounding sustainability. One of the most obvious effects of globalisation and our current ecological crisis is the disappearance of languages and the impoverishment of our linguistic resources. The paper initially contrasts the experience and nature of biological and linguistic extinction in order to better understand the effects of language death on sustainability. The paper then moves to examining the disempowering effects of predominant discourses and truncated repertoires in what is largely monolingual behaviour, with particular reference to current crises and attempts to alleviate them. Language teaching and practices are considered with a focus on the opposition of neoliberal globalising tendencies and policy on the one hand, and the actuality of the complexities of localised understanding on the other. It is suggested that sustainable policy and practice require sustainable linguistic means and uses, and will be informed by deeper, more detailed debate, rather than searching for sweeping solutions. The paper proposes a renewed approach to language policies regarding learning, teaching, testing and governance that are non-exploitative but, at the same time, respect the requirements of meritocratic values. The importance of receptive skills in (inter-)cultural interactions and the role of languages in the appreciation of truth values is also underlined.

Bu araştırmada, Türkçe Almanca iki dilli ve Türkçe tek dilli Türkçe öğretmeni adaylarının yazılı metinlerinde kullandıkları üstsöylem belirleyicilerini belirlemek ve karşılaştırmak amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada, tarama ve ilişkisel araştırma deseni kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, Duisburg Essen Üniversitesi Türkistik bölümünde öğrenim gören 96 iki dilli Türkçe öğretmeni adayı ile Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Türkçe öğretmenliği lisans programında öğrenim gören 104 tek dilli Türkçe öğretmeni adayı oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma verilerinin elde edilmesinde, “Katılımcı Tanıma Formu” ve “Yazılı Anlatım Formu” kullanılmıştır. Üretilen metinler, Hyland’ın üstsöylem belirleyicileri sınıflandırmasına göre incelenmiştir. Grupların kullandıkları metinsel, kişilerarası ve toplam üstsöylem belirleyicileri sıklık ve dağılım verileri çözümlenmiştir. Bu bulgulara göre grupların üstsöylem belirleyicileri kullanımında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı fark tespit edilmiştir. Üstsöylem belirleyicilerini tek dilli Türkçe öğretmeni adaylarının, iki dilli Türkçe öğretmeni adaylarına göre anlamlı derecede daha fazla kullandığı belirlenmiştir. Dört grubun tamamında metinsel üstsöylem belirleyicilerinin, kişilerarası üstsöylem belirleyicilerinden daha fazla kullanıldığı görülmüştür.

The idea of teaching a target language via a monolingual medium of instruction in the classroom has long predominated in the pedagogical context. In Saudi Arabia, excluding the students’ mother tongue (Arabic) in the foreign language classroom has been seen as a tool that accelerates the acquisition of the target language (English). This is widely viewed as the most practical and effective method of language learning, especially in the Gulf region, where English is a foreign language employed in the fields of economics and business. The recent academic argument that exploiting the students’ linguistic repertoire, including the mother tongue, in the target language classroom boosts and fosters the students’ learning cycle is still encountering huge resistance, especially among second/foreign language teachers. To explore this dispute from the perspective of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in intermediate and secondary schools, a case study was conducted with 34 teachers in the Qassim region, Saudi Arabia, through questionnaires and a focus group interview. The study found that most teachers believe that the policy of using the target language (English) only is the most effective method of language learning. They employed the students’ mother tongue (Arabic) on an ad hoc basis to ensure complete comprehension, organize classroom tasks or convey personal remarks. In addition, the study revealed that teachers’ understanding of plurilingualism was unclear and limited to the verbal use of two languages, and that EFL teachers need more clarification on its application in the classroom.

The US–Mexican border towns are often defined as both multicultural and relatively young transnational cities, which have grown apart despite their common historical past. The border policy, which actually started during Eisenhower’s administration, seems to favor further differences. Border towns as well as the identity (construction) of their inhabitants – whether they are in passing or not – now seem to change more drastically. The present article analyzes how documentary film-maker Phillip Rodriguez translates urban imagery and ethnographic shifts to the screen, in particular in Mixed Feelings: San Diego/Tijuana (2002) and Los Angeles Now (2003). Close attention will be paid to multimodal strategies and other discursive practices, as well as to the dominant use of English language and the somehow biased focus on the social actors involved in the border zone. We argue that, in his portrayal of border towns, Rodriguez invites his audience to consider border towns from a mainly northern perspective, aiming to represent multilayered and connected worlds, while visualizing dual and divided spaces. We thus seek to answer the question to which extent this discourse on border towns enriches the larger socio-cultural polysystem in terms of transmission of knowledge and affects related to living experiences in urban borderlands.

Technology use can introduce fundamental pedagogical changes that are integral to achieving significant academic improvements in higher education. When used to support learning, technology permeates higher education with digital learning mechanisms; enlarges course offerings and instructional alternatives; facilitates learning 24 hours a day; develops 21st century skills; enables greater student motivation; and facilitates deeper comprehension of concepts. The use of technology also has the potential to modify learning by instituting a new model of intertwined instruction. Present-day multilingual technology has transcended the debate about language dominating the educational space. Instead, it is now a question of how progressive multilinguals act differently as they take part in current opportunities offered by the various languages on the web. The appreciation and embracing of heteroglossic perspectives in e-learning repudiate inscribed ideologies that posit monolingualism as the default norm in education. Through a sociolinguistic lens focusing on the Funds of Knowledge theory, this article seeks to explore the role language plays in e-learning and how educators can use multilingualism as a teaching/learning resource in higher education. The study presents results from a mixed methods approach in which 42 purposively sampled distance teacher education undergraduate students were taught through English and Shona. Data was collected through focus group interviews and a written assessment activity. Quantitative data suggests an improved performance while qualitative data presents an acknowledgement by students of the efficacy of multilingual pedagogy. The article recommends the use of multilingual approaches in today’s linguistically diverse e-learning higher education classrooms. It further justifies acknowledging that multilingualism is not new, even if the dramatic secularisation of the term seems recent.

Early numeracy and literacy skills are all the knowledge that children acquire spontaneously and independently before entering school and beginning formal learning. This knowledge is essential and forms the basis for the acquisition of reading and arithmetic in school. A bilingual child is a child who is fluent in two languages, as opposed to a monolingual child who is exposed to only one language. Bilingualism has been found to affect verbal and mathematical abilities in children, but only a few studies have focused on the early numeracy and literacy skills of preschoolers. This study examined the connection between early numeracy and literacy skills and among monolingual children as compared to bilingual children in preschool. Three hundred and two children aged 5–6years old were recruited from 74 kindergartens. Participants were divided into two groups: 151 monolingual children who spoke and were exposed to only one language (Hebrew) and 151 bilingual children who spoke and were exposed to two languages (the bilingual children spoke different languages). Monolingual children performed better than the bilingual children in most of the literacy tasks, except for phonological awareness, in which no differences were found between the groups. In addition, in the early numeracy tasks, a difference was found only in the task, which included linguistic knowledge, number knowledge, and counting tasks, in which the monolingual children performed better. Furthermore, stronger correlations were found between the early numeracy and literacy skills among the monolingual group compared to the bilingual group. The study findings stress the importance of strengthening linguistic abilities, such as vocabulary expansion in kindergarten among populations in which more than one language is spoken. Supporting these abilities can reduce the gap between bilingual children and their monolingual classmates before entering school.

We used eye movement measures of first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) paragraph reading to investigate how the activation of multiple lexical candidates, both within and across languages, influences visual word recognition in four different age and language groups: (1) monolingual children; (2) monolingual young adults; (3) bilingual children; and (4) bilingual young adults. More specifically, we focused on within-language and cross-language orthographic neighborhood density effects, while controlling for the potentially confounding effects of orthographic neighborhood frequency. We found facilitatory within-language orthographic neighborhood density effects (i.e., words were easier to process when they had many vs. few orthographic neighbors, evidenced by shorter fixation durations) across the L1 and L2, with larger effects in children vs. adults (especially the bilingual ones) during L1 reading. Similarly, we found facilitatory cross-language neighborhood density effects across the L1 and L2, with no modulatory influence of age or language group. Taken together, our findings suggest that word recognition benefits from the simultaneous activation of visually similar word forms during naturalistic reading, with some evidence of larger effects in children and particularly those whose words may have differentially lower baseline activation levels and/or weaker links between word-related information due to divided language exposure: bilinguals.

Like other former French colonies in Africa, local languages in Senegal know little development due to the assimilation policy. Schools have been settled with the intention of avoiding national languages inclusion so as to lay the foundations of a historic domination of the French language. The teaching strategies set up at the time of independence consisted in reproducing identically the educational approaches inherited from the colonial period. Towards the end of 1970s, the government decided to introduce the national languages on an experimental basis into the formal system in partnership with the French language. The diglossic situation gradually diminishes as far as oral languages have been codified, becoming standard mediums or their linguistic equipment continues to be developed. In so doing, bilingualism serves as a better development of the learner both in the field of linguistic knowledge and communication skills and also affective abilities which allow the anchoring of the early learning in the pupil’s mother tongue.

In 1968 Equatorial Guinea became independent from Spain but inherited its cultural architecture. Current identity claims made by Equatoguinean emixiles (Ugarte’s term, 2010) are rooted in the social and territorial exclusion suffered by ethnic groups during their colonial past. In this paper I will explore the role that the Spanish language played in the identity construction of six Equatoguinean emixiles living in the city of Alicante (Spain). My interviewees’ life-stories reveal valuable information on vernacular languages, but also on the lingua franca, a tool of liberation (granting access) but also of repression. By comparing their recollections of themselves (either as Guinean or ethnic citizens) back in Guinea, to their perceptions of themselves in Spain, I intend to delve into the mutual gaze between transnational identities (Vertovec) here and there, now and then. Given Bhabha’s concept of “third space” I argue, using specific samples from my corpus, that the synchronic analysis of emixiles’ discourses within a perverse diasporic perimeter (the land of the former colonisers), needs to be completed with the diachronic view of the patterns of power which influenced postcolonial (re)construction of national/ethnic identity.

In the modern era, interest in the problem of bilingualism has become increasingly intense. People of various nationalities, as well as voluntary or forced immigrants, have always lived in monolingual states. Once children and their parents find themselves in a foreign language setting, the issue of learning a second language arises. Parents wish their children to learn the official language of a country in question as soon as possible and therefore, try to provide their children with all possible conditions to facilitate the acquisition of the second language from an early age, for example, parents take their children to preschools where the learning process is conducted in a target language and the majority of children speak it. This article touches upon the issue of the emotional state, in particular, the level of anxiety of bilingual children in kindergartens. The purpose of the study was to find a relationship between anxiety and bilingualism and preschool institutions, as a foreign language environment, and to compare the levels of anxiety in monolingual and bilingual children.

This piece reviews David Gramling’s The Invention of Monolingualism (Bloomsbury, 2016), winner of the 2018American Association for Applied Linguistics book award. With the prevalence of academic discourse on bi/multilingualism, this book takes on the under-explored notion of monolingualism. Drawing from a range of disciplines, including applied linguistics, literary studies, translation studies, and comparative world literature, Gramling raises important questions about monolingualism, how the term is used, and understandings of language itself.

The study presents a small research project on Russian monolingual children in Moscow, and Turkish bilingual children living in Berlin, Germany. The children were examined with using the Test of Early Language Development (3rd ed.), and despite the limitations of the study, the findings point up interesting tendencies. In the comprehension section of the test, the Russian monolinguals did much better than the Turkish bilinguals; however, in the section testing production, both groups of children had the same results. All children had difficulties in acquisition of abstract terms, certain prepositions, complex sentences and retelling or creating a story narrative from pictures. Bilingualism is not an obstacle for mother tongue development, but it seems there are universal factors which influence the process of language acquisition.

Research has shown that writing skill of Iranian learners is not at a satisfactory level. One of the ways to develop writing ability is to improve strategic behavior of learners. The current study set out to compare writing performances and patterns of using metacognitive strategies in bilinguals and monolinguals as well as seniors and freshmen students. A total of 176 English major university students took part in the study (88 bilinguals and 88 monolinguals). Data were collected through three instruments: a background questionnaire, a writing metacognitive strategy questionnaire, and participants’ compositions. A two-way factorial ANOVA was used to analyze the data obtained through the strategy questionnaire. Since the composition data were not parametric, two Kruskall-Wallis tests were employed for data analysis. The results revealed that bilinguals used more metacognitive strategies and had higher writing scores than monolinguals. In addition, seniors had better writing performance than freshmen while the difference between them in using strategies was not significant. Based on the results, it can be concluded that teaching writing metacognitive strategies may result in a better writing performance. استفاده از راهبردهای فراشناختی نوشتار و مهارت نوشتاری زبان آموزان یک زبانه و دو زبانه تحقیقات اخیر حاکی از عملکرد ضعیف زبان آموزان ایرانی در مهارت نوشتار زبان انگلیسی است. یکی از روشهای بهبود مهارت نوشتار تقویت رفتار استراتژیک زبان آموزان است. در تحقیق پیش رو به مقایسه مهارت نوشتار و الگوهای استفاده از راهبردهای فراشناختی یک زبانه ها و دو زبانه ها و همچنین دانشجویان سال اول و سال آخر پرداخته شده است. برای این منظور، 176 دانشجوی رشته زبان انگلیسی (88 یک زبانه و 88 دو زبانه) در این تحقیق شرکت کردند. داده ها از طریق سه ابزار پرسشنامه پیشینه، پرسشنامه راهبردهای فراشناختی در نوشتار، و انشای زبان آموزان جمع آوری شد. برای تجزیه و تحلیل داده های بدست آمده از پرسشنامه، از تست تجزیه و تحلیل دو طرفه واریانس (ANOVA) و برای تجزیه و تحلیلانشاهای زبان آموزان از تست ناپارامتری کروسکال والیس (Kruskall-Wallis)استفاده شد. نتایج تحقیق نشان داد که دو زبانه ها بیش از یک زبانه ها از راهبردهای فراشناختی نوشتار استفاده کردند و همچنین نمرات انشای بالاتری کسب کردند. همچنین، دانشجویان سال آخر عملکرد نوشتاری بهتری نسبت به دانشجویان سال اول داشتند ولی تفاوت بین این دو گروه در استفاده از راهبردهای فراشناختی نوشتار معنا دار نبود. بر اساس یافته های تحقیق میتوان نتیجه گرفت که آموزش مهارت های فراشناختی نوشتار میتواند به تقویت عملکرد نوشتاری کمک کند. کلید واژه ها: دو زبانگی، یک زبانگی، مهارتهای فراشناختی، مهارت نوشتار، سطح آکادمیک

A text recently published in a French newspaper and signed by more than a hundred writers and intellectuals brings to light some of the tensions within critical debates on “francophonie”. The status the article confers on the French language appears to be incompatible with any consideration of diglossia, be it social or literary. Moreover, this collective defence of the French language mobilises opposing beliefs in a problematic manner, thus prompting us to reconsider the very notion of “francophonie”. Une tribune collective parue dans la presse française en janvier 2019 met au jour les tensions internes à la « francophonie critique ». Le statut conféré à la langue française s’y révèle incompatible avec la prise en compte de toute diglossie, sociale ou littéraire. Plus encore, la défense du français y mobilise des convictions opposées, relançant d’autant la question de la « francophonie » et de son étude. Mots-clefs: Francophonie; salon du livre; Chamoiseau; Deguy; monolinguisme; diglossie; code-switching

Resumen: Hasta ahora los diferentes modelos educativos de la enseñanza en lenguas se han venido clasificando en sistemas de opción y conjunción lingüística según posibilitasen elegir el idioma que iba a ocupar un lugar central en la enseñanza o no. Sin embargo la introducción en los planes de estudio de varias Comunidades Autónomas de lenguas extranjeras, no solo como materia de estudio sino como medio de transmisión de conocimientos, reclama la inclusión de nuevos parámetros que tengan en cuenta el número de lenguas vehiculares de la enseñanza, distinguiendo complementariamente los modelos monolingües, bilingües y plurilingües. A partir de estas variables, y utilizando la terminología de la Comisión Europea, los autores proponen una nueva sistematización de los modelos lingüísticos de las Comunidades Autónomas con lengua cooficial capaz de abarcar toda su complejidad. También señalan sus límites, de acuerdo con la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Constitucional y los tribunales ordinarios, y realizan una apuesta por el aprendizaje integrado de contenidos y lenguas (AICLE). Abstract: Until the present, idiomatic models of education have distinguished between linguistical choice or conjunction, whether it was possible to choose the language which would occupy a central space at school or not. Nevertheless, the teaching of foreign languages in the educational schemes of several Spanish regional governments, not only as a subject but also as a way of study non linguistic areas, requires new patterns that include the languages in which education is offered, in particular, monolingualism, bilingualism and plurilingualism. Knowing all these varieties, and using the European Commission´s common vocabulary, the authors propose a new classification for the linguistic models held by the Spanish regional governments with two equally recognized languages. Regarding the Constitutional Court case-law and other jurisprudence, they also point the limits and advocate for content and language integrated learning (CLIL). Summary: I. Introduction. II. Idiomatic education models. A) Linguistic conjuction. B) Linguistic option. A) Monolingualism: international, common and language inmersion. 2 B) Multilingualism: bilingualism y plurilingualism. III. Spanish linguistic models of regions with equally recognized languages. 1) Regional law. A) Catalonia. B) Valencian Community. C) Galicia. D) Balearic Islands. E) Navarre. F) Basque Country. 2) State Law. IV. Conclusion.

This article compares the language ideologies of language experts (both academic and non-academic) in online news media in Lithuania, Norway and Serbia. The results will reveal that language is understood in diametrically opposed ways amongst Lithuanian and Serbian academic experts on the one, and Norwegian academic experts on the other hand. Lithuanian and Serbian academic experts are influenced by modernist ideas of language as a single, homogenous entity, whose borders ideally match the borders of an ethnic group. Norwegian academic experts function in the public sphere as those who try to deconstruct the modernist notion of language by employing an understanding of language as a cognitive tool that performs communicative and other functions. On the other hand, non-academic experts in all the three countries exhibit a striking similarity in their language ideologies, as the great majority expresses modernist ideals of language.

Much of what previously characterized the language situation and language policy within states is transferred to the international level due to globalization. We are facing the growing importance of world languages, especially English. However, globalization (at least in the form in which it exists now) does not satisfy the need of identitification for the majority people (except, of course, those for whom English is a mother tongue). This situation can lead to conflicts and even question the effectiveness of globalization processes.

Luxembourg maintains by far the largest proportion of foreign immigrants in Europe. This is also reflected in the population of children. About 50% of children under the age of four are foreign nationals. Accordingly, the question of how to deal with linguistic diversity represents one of the biggest challenges in the professional debate about early childhood education in Luxembourg. The article will refer to this issue on the basis of several insights stemming from an ethnographic study in Luxembourgish daycare centers which was conducted between 2009 and 2012 by the working group Early Childhood: Education and Care at the University of Luxembourg. The study explored practices professionals apply to come up with the superdiverse and translingual environment in order to meet the political expectation of promoting foreign children’s competences before they enter school. Based on the empirical investigations of everyday language use in center-based early childhood education, the article will not only characterize two different modes of language promotion (institutional monolingualization in one language and institutional monolingualization in several languages) but also highlight the ambiguities of those language promotion practices which, although facing a translingual environment, are still based on a multilingual standard.

This research reports on the findings regarding the perceptions of teachers towards creating space for the use of code switching as a teaching strategy in Afrikaans learning and teaching in the isiXhosa-speaking environments of the Transkei region. The aim of this investigation was to establish whether or not code switching can be used as a teaching strategy. A sample of 13 teachers from 12 schools was purposefully selected. A qualitative approach was used. Interviews and semi-structured questionnaires were used for data collection. The teachers admitted that they code switch during Afrikaans classes. It also transpired that teachers perceived code switching as the best way to facilitate understanding. The recommendations postulate a gradual move from a high tolerance of code switching in the lower classes to a low tolerance thereof in higher classes.

This article discusses the loss of the creole languages on São Tomé Island and the societal move from multilingualism to monolingualism in Portuguese. It argues that recognizing the ideologies attached to these languages is key in understanding the language shift, but also the processes leading toward monolingualism. This qualitative study is based on three main theories: Language as social practice, language ideology, and monoglot standardization. Data comes from ethnographic fieldwork and sociolinguistic interviews with 56 speakers from the capital of São Tomé and Príncipe. I argue that the existence of multilingualism on São Tomé Island is not valued at a societal level because of the pejorative ideologies that have been held about the creole languages since colonial times. Also, the use of the creole languages stood as a problem for the creation of a unified Santomean nation, as the different racial groups on the islands had their own creole. Results show how ideologies about the Portuguese language and its association with national unity, modernity, and European-ness favored its expansion on São Tomé Island and a move toward monolingualism.

Monolingualism ofthe Other; or, The Prosthesis of Origin (MO) Jacques Derrida (1998) takes up Frantz Fanon's project in The Wretched of the Earth (WE) at its very core. Derrida thinks "decolonization" from the very place for which Fanon— and from which Derrida, symbolically and metonymically—struggled and wrote, Algeria. The author explores the experience of writing "nostalgerically."

Acts of Corporate Social Responsibility are more often than not portrayed as success-story narratives. A quasi-ethnographic study in Senegal shatters the underlying assumptions of these accounts. First a computer donation from a Northern country is described with all the usual incidents and related vocabulary. Later, during a visit to a Senegalese rubbish dump, the story starts to falter, as countless questions arise about what is actually going on there, and how we can know and represent it (both as a portrayal and as a voice). A tipping point in an interview serves to reveal the ambiguities of the position adopted and the difficulties of expressing oneself in a different language. The CSR language is described as a kind of monolingualism, which employs a particular vocabulary and grammar for what is said or thought. This is the monolingualism of the other. Some of the implications of this monolingualism are examined, and this leads to the conclusion that there is a need to take measures with regard to the CSR language and that more than one language is needed to speak about CSR.

Using the American Community Survey‟s multi-year (2005-2009) Public Use Microdata Sample, we estimate the prevalence of English monolingualism and statistically analyze the association between English monolingualism and generational status within the U.S. Hmong population. Our findings show that the odds of speaking only English among the second generation is almost three times more compared to the first generation. Data from the 2009 ACS PUMS further indicate that there is a linear and positive relationship between generational status and English speaking ability. We discuss how English monolingualism, when reinforced by Hmong‟s age structure and immigration pattern, could impact Hmong Americans rate of household linguistic isolation and their maintenance of oral tradition.

There is an analogy between two types of liminality: the geographic or cultural ‘outside’ space of the Marrano Jew, alienated from his/her original religion and the one he or she has been forced to adopt, and, a philosophical position that is outside of both Athens and Jerusalem. Derrida finds and re-finds ‘h’ors- texte’, an ‘internal desert’, a ‘secret’ outside place: alien to both the western philosophical tradition and the Hebraic archive. In this liminal space he questions the otherness of the French language to which he was acculturated, and, in a turn to a less discursive modality, autobiography, finds, in the words of Helene Cixous, “the Jew-who-doesn’t know-that-he-is”. Derrida’s galut (exile) is neither Hebrew nor Greek. It is a private place outside of all discourse, which he claims, is inevitably ethnocentric. In inhabiting this outside space, he exercises the prerogative of a Marrano, equipped to critique the French language of his acculturation and the western philosophy of the scholars. French and Hebrew are irreconcilable binaries, western philosophy and his Hebrew legacy is as well. These issues will be discussed in this paper with reference to Monolingualism of the Other and Archive Fever as they augment some of his earlier work, Writing and Difference and Speech and Phenomena.

This communication is part of the study of language policy. Its aim is to present a sort of proposals dealing with linguistic diversity and identity management models, which could be applied to Morocco following the new territorial and administrative organization. In this proposal we will emphasize and discuss the following concepts: nation-state, nationalism, nations, multilingualism and territoriality.