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This article presents the main acts of international law and the jurisprudence of European courts that aim to ensure decent working conditions for domestic workers. The author analyzes the legal status of this group of workers in Poland from the times before the Second World War until now. The publication argues that Polish legislation should be complemented by specific provisions concerning domestic workers. The introduction of such measures to the Polish legal system is necessary to align national law with the ILO legal acts. Moreover, the author proposes that state financial incentives for natural persons employing domestic workers should be available in certain cases to encourage the legalization of this type of work.

This study aims to investigate the impacts of the informal economy, climate migration and temperature changes on energy demand and long-term urban energy system planning. The elasticity of energy demand to changes in the size of the informal sector, urban population and mean temperature is estimated for the case study city of Accra, Ghana. Elasticities are then applied to estimate energy demand under different Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). An energy system optimization model analyzes SSP impacts on energy planning. Accra's energy demand is found to be most elastic to climate change-induced migration and rising temperatures; for example, energy demand is up to 43% higher in 2050 in a worst-case scenario compared to the base case. These factors will exacerbate the city's ability to meet its sustainability targets and manage informal sector growth. Photovoltaics, waste CCP and decarbonization of the transportation sector through electrification are found to be critical solution pathways for Accra to meet rising demand while supporting sustainability objectives. However, significant local distribution grid upgrades are required to support these technologies' rollout. Overall, this work demonstrates the importance and value of incorporating climate migration, rising temperature and informal sector analysis in energy planning models and decision-making processes, particularly in low and middle-income countries that are the most vulnerable to climate change. Although the approach is demonstrated on Accra, it can be applied at other scales and scopes globally.

Suppressed demand arises from inadequate energy access, resulting in unmet basic needs. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of the informal economy, rising temperatures, and electricity transmission losses on suppressed demand in Ghana from 2000 to 2020, using a quantile autoregressive distributed lag (QARDL) approach. The study forecasts suppressed demand using Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) scenarios, offering insights for energy system planning. The results indicate that all the variables significantly affect suppressed demand in the mid-quantiles. Notably, transmission losses and growth of informal economy variables significantly impact suppressed demand within the 50th to 75th quantiles but have minimal impact before the 50th and after the 75th quantiles in the long run. Additionally, rising temperatures substantially increase suppressed demand by increasing electricity demand for cooling. All future scenarios project this growth trend will continue through 2050, albeit at varying rates. In the business-as-usual (BAU) case, suppressed demand is expected to steadily increase from 1782 MW in 2020 to 8636 MW in 2050. This trajectory aligns well with historical growth trends, which saw suppressed demand increase from 659 GWh to 1782 GWh between 2000 and 2020. SSP scenarios suggest that suppressed demand could grow substantially through 2050, driven by high losses and informal sector growth. Despite sustainable development narratives like SSP1, suppressed demand remains high without major grid and governance improvements. Comparing the results with past studies shows that our findings align with previous research but provide more nuanced insights by incorporating the effects of the informal economy and using advanced forecasting techniques. Practical policy implications include investing in green infrastructure, upgrading grid infrastructure, and formalising the informal economy to alleviate suppressed demand. These actions are critical for sustainable energy access and meeting future electricity needs effectively.

Women engaged in street food vending face a myriad of challenges as they juggle business activities and family obligations. The complexities of managing both spheres often disrupt their pursuit of a balanced life, impacting their overall well-being. This study aims to reveal the work-family dynamics of female food vendors and uncover the strategies employed to navigate these challenges. Qualitative research methods were used to understand the work-life balance among women food vendors. The data were collected through interviews, focus group discussions, and observations of street food vendors in Africa. Findings reveal the persistent struggle of women food vendors to achieve equilibrium between work and family responsibilities. Although they employ a variety of strategies, ranging from working extended hours to relying on external support such as grandparents or domestic help, these approaches often prove insufficient and unsustainable. Moreover, the utilization of such strategies can lead to conflicts with employers. Through an examination of daily routines, work-life balance, and coping mechanisms, the author’s conclusions shed light on the intricate interplay between entrepreneurship, personal responsibilities, and resilience within the dynamic street vending landscape.

A continuous decline in the number of informal economies in the advanced economy has been boosted across the globe by various institutions such as IMF (International Monetary Fund). But a resurrection of the informal economy is being witnessed in the United States (US) with a 102% jump from 1990 to 2018. Over the years technological advancement has impacted the involvement of labour in the production process, with rapid automation in the last three decades this involvement has been reduced a to minimalistic level. In this paper, we tried to build a narrative to explain this resurgence of the informal market in the US. Through our theoretical framework, we commented on how unemployed graduates and the informal economy are associated with automation. The result showed that both variables were positively associated with automation which was confirmatory of the theory put forward. Lastly, we also comment on income inequality and automation which were also positively related.

Traditional food markets in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are pivotal urban spaces, especially for vulnerable populations. These markets are vibrant hubs for commerce, cultural exchange, and social interaction, yet they face challenges such as food safety issues, inadequate infrastructure, and regulation that is a complex mix of informal mechanisms in need of a balanced degree of formalization. Rapid urbanization in SSA and the vulnerabilities of informal settlements underline their enduring importance. The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted their crucial role in promoting food access, supporting local economies, and preserving social connections during crises. However, a comprehensive understanding of their multifaceted impact on urban life remains limited. This study provides a systematic narrative literature review with the aims of mapping the existing literature and evaluating their complex impact on vulnerable communities. The review employed a systematic search strategy, encompassing research studies and gray literature. It highlights the geographic distribution of studies across SSA, with a concentration in East and Southern Africa. Nutrition is the most explored theme, followed by governance, with economics and social aspects relatively under examined. Traditional food markets are vital sources of affordable food for the urban poor and serve as pillars of economic mobility, providing livelihoods and employment opportunities, especially for women, and act as hubs for diverse groups to interact. Market governance is complex, often marked by policy misalignments due to insufficient collaboration among stakeholders. Policy initiatives to support traditional food markets in SSA should focus on formalization and context-aware regulations to enhance efficiency and vendor security, investment in market-related infrastructure, and nutrition-focused policies and economic support for vendors. Further research is needed to bridge thematic and regional gaps, and to inform evidence-based policy measures to support these vital urban institutions.

The objective of this paper is to evaluate the impact of fiscal instruments for Colombia on two of the country’s main issues: income inequality and informality, phenomena that have been exacerbated by the pandemic. For this purpose, we built a DSGE model whose main differentiating element is the level of liquidity of households. The model carried out various simulations of transfers to households, and we examined the effects of these on different macroeconomic variables. We conclude that for the economy to return to the same fiscal adjustment it had before a transfer, the government will somehow have to increase the productivity of the formal sector, as this increase will have a positive effect on growth, increase income taxes and employment, and decrease informality.

As a vulnerable group in South Africa, women have been the primary victims of unemployment, the lack of access to income generation opportunities and barriers to sustainable livelihoods in general. Street vendors are a significant part of the economy, and their income supports several families and sustains their livelihoods. However, such vendors, particularly women, are faced with severe problems that interfere with their daily operations, as well as challenges relating to the law. Their low literacy levels mean they have an inadequate understanding of the laws and by-laws that regulate street vending. Even though the South African Constitution guarantees equal rights and protection, as well as the freedom to choose one's own occupation, trade or profession, street vendors, especially female vendors, are not adequately protected. The purpose of this study was to investigate the challenges faced by street vendors in the Durban area and to examine the role of the law in contributing to such challenges, as well as addressing them. Through a quantitative study using a survey, data was collected from street vendors in Durban. The study’s findings indicate that vendors lacked knowledge of their rights and faced poor working conditions, harassment by the police, evictions, impounding of goods and a lack of access to permits.

This article uses transaction data from time banks to analyze their potential to generate bonding and bridging social capital among members, emphasizing community engagement and contributing to the circular economy. It also indirectly investigates members’ motivations to engage in time banks. Regarding bonding social capital, the findings are in line with the related literature in terms of the average number of trading partners and the ego-network density. However, reciprocity is a more frequent behavior in our data than in other time banks from other countries. With respect to bridging social capital and considering different age groups, the results show slight evidence of homophilic behavior, although intergenerational transactions are also present, being more frequent between closer age groups. Finally, regarding members’ motivations to participate in time banks, the analysis suggests that young people seem to be more driven by ideological reasons while the elderly members seem more motivated by economic reasons.

As a vulnerable group in South Africa, women have been the primary victims of unemployment, the lack of access to income generation opportunities and barriers to sustainable livelihoods in general. Street vendors are a significant part of the economy, and their income supports several families and sustains their livelihoods. However, such vendors, particularly women, are faced with severe problems that interfere with their daily operations, as well as challenges relating to the law. Their low literacy levels mean they have an inadequate understanding of the laws and by-laws that regulate street vending. Even though the South African Constitution guarantees equal rights and protection, as well as the freedom to choose one's own occupation, trade or profession, street vendors, especially female vendors, are not adequately protected. The purpose of this study was to investigate the challenges faced by street vendors in the Durban area and to examine the role of the law in contributing to such challenges, as well as addressing them. Through a quantitative study using a survey, data was collected from street vendors in Durban. The study’s findings indicate that vendors lacked knowledge of their rights and faced poor working conditions, harassment by the police, evictions, impounding of goods and a lack of access to permits.

As a vulnerable group in South Africa, women have been the primary victims of unemployment, the lack of access to income generation opportunities and barriers to sustainable livelihoods in general. Street vendors are a significant part of the economy, and their income supports several families and sustains their livelihoods. However, such vendors, particularly women, are faced with severe problems that interfere with their daily operations, as well as challenges relating to the law. Their low literacy levels mean they have an inadequate understanding of the laws and by-laws that regulate street vending. Even though the South African Constitution guarantees equal rights and protection, as well as the freedom to choose one's own occupation, trade or profession, street vendors, especially female vendors, are not adequately protected. The purpose of this study was to investigate the challenges faced by street vendors in the Durban area and to examine the role of the law in contributing to such challenges, as well as addressing them. Through a quantitative study using a survey, data was collected from street vendors in Durban. The study’s findings indicate that vendors lacked knowledge of their rights and faced poor working conditions, harassment by the police, evictions, impounding of goods and a lack of access to permits.

The crisis during the pandemic restrained the livelihood of women and disrupted their economic opportunities. Specifically, during the height of the lockdown, when people were restricted from going out, the livelihood of women who sold and peddled seafood products was greatly affected. This paper unfolds women’s socio-demographic profile and knowledge regarding the laws for protecting women’s rights in the lexis of the Republic Act No. 9710, also known as the Magna Carta of Women, and their economic condition in the informal economy during the pandemic. This descriptive mixed method quantitatively surveyed 70 women and another 10 women for the Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). The findings have shown that women in the informal economy were predominantly in the middle and late adulthood stage, married, the majority had a low level of education (i.e., elementary & high school levels) and were the breadwinners in the family. Also, the average size of each family consisted of 7 members with an average family monthly income of 7,407 pesos. The themes unearthed that informants perceived the Magna Carta of Women as unfamiliar and vague concepts, inconsistent implementation, and responsive leadership. On the other note, informants highlighted that the imagery of women in society gained parity in gender roles. It was revealed that women struggled with delayed assistance, parental obligations, prejudice, and partial treatment.

In this paper, we use panel data containing all EU27 countries from the 2010 to 2022 period to investigate the impact exhibited by the shadow economy on the level of NPLs. Based on a Panel GMM approach we reveal a negative connection, indicating that Countries with larger informal sectors often exhibit lower reported NPLs, possibly due to less stringent oversight. Additionally, economic growth correlates negatively with NPLs, while rising unemployment is associated with increased NPL levels. However, factors like inflation, political stability, and government debt did not show significant correlations with NPLs in our analysis. The topic holds significant relevance for both macro-stability policymakers and commercial banks aiming to understand how changes in fiscal and budgetary conditions impact the quality of credit portfolios.

ABSTRACTThis study explores the diverse range of activities undertaken by informal workers and the ways in which these activities can differ in terms of their degree of informality. The methodology is qualitative, based on a case study of mototaxi drivers in Cartagena, Colombia, in order to achieve a more complete description and a holistic analysis of the phenomenon. The paper offers a novel multilevel perspective of informality that encompasses not only legal status but also social and economic aspects, and proposes an integrated approach to understanding informality that accounts for the range of activities undertaken by informal actors.

Previous studies show that gig economy‐based work opens up new ways in which inequalities are (re)produced. In this context, it is particularly important to look at female cleaners in private households, where gender inequalities intersect with other axes of disadvantage such as class, migratory experience, or ascribed ethnicity. This spatially and linguistically fragmented group presents challenges for scientific research, which is reflected in insufficient data available to date. The aim of the project GigClean—from which research for this article is drawn—is to address this gap. The guiding research question is: How do domestic cleaners in the informal labour market experience working in the gig economy? The methodological design consists of 15 problem‐centred interviews with platform‐based cleaning labourers in private households in Vienna, who predominantly operate in the informal economy. Our results suggest that undeclared domestic work via online plat‐forms is associated with increased power gaps between workers and clients as well as changing working conditions to the detriment of cleaners. Specifically, three recurring themes could be identified: reserve army mechanisms; lookism, objectification, and sexual harassment; and information asymmetry and control.

Context and background The incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into businesses has become increasingly widespread in recent years, particularly in developed countries, fundamentally reshaping the landscape of entrepreneurship and innovation. AI presents numerous opportunities for small businesses, including those involved in cross-border trade. It has the potential to transform various aspects of business operations, such as customer interactions, marketing research, understanding consumer behavior, optimizing routes, and forecasting sales and marketing trends. Additionally, AI can contribute to the formalization of business processes, and assist these businesses in adapting more effectively to the ever-changing dynamics of the market. However, the successful implementation of AI necessitates a meticulous assessment of AI applications to ensure alignment with the objectives and resources of each individual small business. Goal and Objectives: The primary focus of this paper is to explore the potential of Artificial Intelligence in enhancing Africa's cross-border trade. The paper will address the following research questions: What are the effective applications of artificial intelligence in cross-border informal trade in Africa, and what are the limitations? What does the future hold for African countries in terms of utilizing artificial intelligence for cross-border trade? How can African informal cross-border traders and their stakeholders benefit from incorporating artificial intelligence in their activities? Methodology: The research is purely empirical research based on observation and measurement of phenomena, as directly experienced by the researcher. Results: AI can be effectively applied by Informal Cross-Border Traders (ICBT) to enhance their businesses and enhance competitiveness. There are several AI applications accessible to ICBT within their operational context. Although the adoption and utilization of AI in Africa are still in their infancy, there is considerable promise for the future. Africans must address the challenges hindering the adoption and utilization of AI, as technology is advancing rapidly, and opportunities await those who embrace it.

The relationship between economic growth and the development of financial systems has been analyzed from different perspectives for a long time. This paper addresses the effects of the informal economy on the relationship between financial development and economic growth, using a panel data covering 20 countries during the period 1993–2020. The results show that financial development, as measured by the IMF’s Financial Development Index, is positively associated with economic growth (the coefficient α1 related to financial development fd is positive and statistically significant at 5%). The results also show that large sizes of the informal economy moderate the influence of this association (α1 remains positive and statistically significant at 1%, while the coefficient α2 related to the interaction between financial development and informal economy, fd and ie, is negative and statistically significant at 1%). In effect, financial development has the greatest impact on economic growth whenever there is control over the informal economy’s size. Inversely, a favorable ground for the informal economy limits the positive association between financial development and economic growth. However, the results show the absence of a causality relationship between financial development and economic growth (W-bar = 1.0015 and Z-bar = 0.0048; p-value = 0.9980). The informal economy plays no role in making this type of link significant (W-bar = 0.9761 and Z-bar = -0.0756; p-value = 0.9520).

Street vendors are an indispensable part of the urban social ecosystem, but due to a lack of comprehensive understanding, many cities have adopted simple eviction policies, resulting in the gradual marginalization and stigmatization of the street economy. The efficient governance of street vendors requires the comprehensive investigation of their business scale and spatial distribution information. However, traditional methods have limitations in terms of automatically surveying large-scale street vendor information, particularly spatial distribution. This paper proposes a method for the automatic investigation spatial distribution of street vendors based on street-view images and a deep-learning object recognition model. Street-view images were collected at fixed intervals according to the urban road network, and 1,957 images containing one or more vendors were selected through human-machine interaction to establish street vendor label data. To achieve high recognition model accuracy, the category labels were subdivided into four categories: ground stalls, table stalls, tricycle stalls, and small truck stalls, based on the goods carriers used by street vendors. A deep neural-network-based image object detection model based on YOLO v4 was constructed to identify street vendors in the street-view image library, with an average F1 value of 0.77 and an mAP of 0.67. The accuracy of the model was satisfactory for investigating the number and location of street vendors covering the main roads in the city and then applying a kernel density distribution model to evaluate the spatial distribution pattern of street vendors. Using street vendors in Guangzhou as a case study, the proposed automatic investigation model identified 26,119 street vendors from 3,339,062 street-view images. The results showed that the street vendors were distributed in a multicenter aggregation pattern in the central urban area, mainly concentrated in areas with high pedestrian traffic, such as subway stations and urban villages; their numbers increased as road grades decreases. Street vendors were mainly distributed in areas with medium rents. The proposed method is helpful for performing the efficient, low-cost, and city-scale mapping of street vendors; the results obtained provide suggestions for formulating and implementing spatial governance policies for the informal economy and further provide suggestions for improving and implementing spatial governance policies for open and diverse urban street-view images. The results can be used as a reference for the location preference analysis of practitioners, the exploration of NIMBY syndrome, and the determination of the formalization zone. Although street-view images have an insufficient spatiotemporal coverage, using them to perform street vendor investigations is a low-cost and efficient method compared with the use of traditional investigation methods and data sources. In addition, the method proposed in this article can be coupled with multitask deep learning algorithms to investigate additional dimensions of street vendor information, such as the sex, age, and type of business of street vendors. Relevant research needs to be conducted in the future.

This article analyzes texts written by users of Russian-language digital communication platforms on the topic of emigration to the Republic of Korea. The purpose of the study was to determine what meanings are attributed to the Republic in these texts, and how these images can affect the migration strategies of Russian-speaking migrants. The texts were sourced from relevant communities inside the largest social networks by the number of Russian-speaking users. The research method of choice was discourse analysis. Korea was regarded as an intersectional symbol that combines “migrant” texts into a single discourse. Its significance was determined by means of the authors of the messages constructing associations between the host country and certain situations and actions. It was established that pendulum migrants working in the country illegally, educational migrants, intermediaries, and communities of fans of Korean popular culture are most actively involved in shaping the image of Korea within the considered social media platforms. The messages posted by those users who focus on the shadow segment of the labor market portray Korea as a country that deals with visitors employed in this segment in as lenient a manner as possible. During the visa-free period, you can earn more here than in six months back home, without knowing the language and without having any skills, after which you can go home and return to Korea again once the money you earned has run out. This group describes the following strategy: you enter the country as a tourist for 60 days, and find a job on “samushil” or through an intermediary. Then return to Russia temporarily, or stay in Korea illegally, or use such mechanisms as political asylum and marriage of convenience. Educational migrants describe Korea as a developed, safe and wealthy country, with optimal conditions for permanent residency. Many describe the following strategy: get into the country on a student visa, receive an education, find a job in areas somehow related to servicing Russian-speaking migration flows. Some count on legalization through marriage to a member of the host community. Groups dedicated to Korean popular culture associate the Republic with a male idol, overconsumption, scenery and drama characters. Their users might describe either of the strategies mentioned above. A group of intermediaries reproduces the images conveyed by the texts produced by illegal migrants and k-pop communities, idealizing Korea and omitting the numerous difficulties and risks associated with staying there. Intermediaries essentially provide customers with the opportunity to become a part of this image by selling them paths of migration to and integration in Korea, which are often utilized by pendulum and educational migrants. According to G. Klein’s model of decision-making in a situation of uncertainty, it can be assumed that “migrant” social media containing these images contribute to the dissemination and reproduction of appropriate migration strategies, influencing the direction and content of migration flows between Korea and the CIS countries.

This article constitutes an empirical contribution regarding the correlation between economic informality and the COVID-19 pandemic in Peru. Based on interviews with merchants in the informal sector of the city of Huancayo, the pandemic-related impacts are analyzed in relation to income and livelihoods. It is argued that informal employment played an important role in the tragic indicators of public health in the country. The intrinsic flexibility of this type of activities, specifically for walking merchants, and the lack of access to systems and programs of social security were the main reasons that people worked in this sector to replace the income they lost due to confinement. Thus, the notion “replacement of income” in the economy appeared during the pandemic. The heterogeneity among those who carry out informal work, specifically in terms of their access to different resources, enabled such work and enabled some people to control their exposure to the virus. It is concluded that the focus on economic formalization of the last decades of financial liberalization are not considered advantages that informal activities offer in relation to formalization. In fact, informality continues to offer the best opportunity for immediate income and highly flexible options, in particular for adapting to crisis situations like the pandemic.

This article argues that the gig economy is an exploitative extension of the informal economy. With its decentralised promise of individual entrepreneurship, I will argue that it places undue burdens on the worker as an ‘independent contractor’ that would otherwise be upheld by the employer. I will do so by applying a Marcusian analysis of the gig economy, highlighting two primary concerns. First, Marcuse’s critique of ‘industrial rationality’ explains how industrial rationality creates the framework for – and justification of – exploitation within the gig economy. Second, as Wendy Brown notes, following Marcuse, the gig economy promotes the neoliberal notion of ‘self-care’ as a means of absolving corporations from any duty towards their employees. More specifically, ‘self-care’ within the gig economy forms part of the exploitation of workers within the informal economy which is often viewed as a buffer to absorb the unemployed within a neoliberal society. Building on this critique, I refer to the work of Byung-Chul Han and his concept of ‘self-exploitation,’ arguing that the gig economy should be considered an extension of an informal economy, in which workers are left in a perpetual state of servitude.

The Swedish Servant Acts compulsed everyone without an occupation to take up service as a servant. However it is unclear to what extent this compulsion was actually enforced. Repeated complaints from the authorities give the impression that it was largely ignored. One suspicion was that people chose to live with relatives rather than taking service. A list compiled by the Stockholms authorities enables a quantification of mostly women who evaded service around 1755. The study shows that up to a fifth of all female servants were suspected of being live ins rather than employed as servants, and most of them problably earned their living in the informal sector of the urban economy. A comparison with tax registers reveals that these people were accounted for. In conclusion, while historical scholarship is dependent upon ample source material, this study suggests that a good part of the servant population was recorded in tax registers, but that the nature of their service might not have been properly accounted for, and that many servants provided for themselves on an extensive informal economy of the city which is difficult to quantify.

The objective of this document is to introduce the datasets and the methods for accessing them, derived from the article “Social, commercial, and economic diversity. Poverty and expectations among street vendors in Florencia, Caquetá, Colombia.” These datasets aim to provide insights into the conditions and characteristics of street vending in Colombia. The data collection process involved both mapping and personal surveys conducted on 190 street vendors. Additionally, practical recommendations are provided for tailoring the implementation of each survey instrument based on the specific attributes of the study's target demographic. The collected data holds the potential for comparative and longitudinal analyses, not only within different Colombian cities but also in cities worldwide facing similar circumstances to those of intermediate cities like Florencia. These datasets offer a valuable resource for understanding the dynamics of street vending and its implications, fostering more comprehensive research and informed policymaking.

This study investigates the relationship between street trading and urban planning in Enugu City, Nigeria, within the expanding informal economy of the global South. It particularly focuses on the perspectives of urban planners regarding the impacts and management of street trading. The research employed a mixed-method approach, including personal observation, questionnaires, and in-depth interviews, analyzed through basic statistical methods. Findings reveal that urban planners recognize the socio-economic importance and cultural relevance of street trading, despite its negative spatial externalities. Contrary to prevailing assumptions, planners favour negotiated solutions over forced evictions. This study highlights the need for inclusive urban planning practices that accommodate the socio-economic benefits of street trading while addressing its challenges, contributing to the discourse on sustainable urban development.

The current study seeks to explore the vulnerabilities typically encountered by female migrants in the informal sector in Dhaka city. It used a qualitative research approach, purposively selecting four areas from Dhaka city. Twenty-five semi-structured in-depth interviews during eight months of participant observation were conducted to accomplish the study objective. The authors used the capability approach theory to elucidate the phenomenon of vulnerability experienced by female migrants in the informal sector. The thematic data analyses were performed using the Granheim approach and NVivo 12 software. The findings of this study suggest that migrant women who work on the street face a number of significant challenges. These challenges include sexual assault and harassment, social stigma and cultural barriers, financial obstacles, and extortion and bribery. The authors recommend that governments provide access to state credits, social security, health insurance, and other forms of social protection for informal sector workers. The finding revealed that informal workers are often excluded from these essential benefits, making it difficult for such workers to expand their businesses or have a safety net in case of illness, unemployment, or other shocks.

ABSTRACTThe size of the informal economy in Poland is estimated by means of the Currency Demand Approach (CDA). Using quarterly data for the period 1999–2019, we adopt two separate econometric approaches. First, we specify a single equation model to estimate it with the Fully-Modified OLS method. Second, the CDA coefficients are treated as a cointegrating vector in a cointegrated VAR. The size of the informal economy in Poland is found to have diminished from about 32% of GDP in 2000 to about 12% of GDP in 2019. We provide confidence intervals for our estimates which, to our best knowledge, are rarely presented in the literature; their width ranges from 3 to 7% of GDP.

The aim of this paper is to deepen understanding of the relationship between sustainable development, localisation and the purchase of goods and services from the informal economy. This has not before been investigated. To do so, it reports a survey of 1,209 respondents conducted during October-December 2021 in Romania, a country with one of the largest informal economies in the European Union. The findings reveal a link between consumers' motives to purchase informal goods and services and the pursuit of sustainable development through localisation. The analysis shows that there is no purely sustainability-driven consumer in the informal economy, but this rationale is prevalent as one of several motives for a large proportion of consumers purchasing goods and services from the informal economy, who do so explicitly for the purposes of environmental protection and localisation. The implications for theorising and tackling the informal economy are then discussed.

Despite the enormous amounts of human resources engaged in warehousing, warehouse labor remains virtually invisible to the public, both among consumers and in the academia. A lot of research is dedicated to the transformation of labor relations within platform economy, including precarity and “uberization” of labor, as well as digital technology-mediated surveillance and control over employees during working hours. At the other “pole” are numerous studies on the informal (“garage”) economy. This article is based on a 1.5-month ethnography I conducted in the summer of 2021 in the warehouse complex of a prominent Russian marketplace. Engaging in a dialogue with both “poles” mentioned, my observations in the warehouse suggest the simultaneous coexistence of two realities. The first deals with various forms of digital control of employees, ranging from access to the workspace to the regulation of output and eventual earnings. The second is predominantly informal and is based on the deliberate restriction of workers' access to “rare” resources (“work”) and information (“details”). Here I attempt to show the complex, at times conflicting interaction of formal and informal components of warehouse labor, combining the neo-Marxist conceptual apparatus with the metaphor of C. Geertz's “bazaar economy”.

The Declaration by the Labour and Employment Ministers of the BRICS countries, “Quality Jobs and Inclusive Employment Policies,” guarantees that formalization of labor markets is a global priority for the BRICS countries, as informal employment hampers productivity, potential economic growth and efforts to improve the welfare of populations worldwide. Taking into account this strategic goal, the authors analyze the informal employment processes in the BRICS countries and speculate on the transition from informal to formal employment. The article addresses the issues of inhomogeneous notional ranges used to define informal employment and recommends that the possibilities provided by labor legislation and government employment policy (such as increasing the number of formal working places and dynamic development of labor legislation directed at regulation of new employment forms) be used to tackle these issues. The potential of the social security right for achieving the goals of transition to a formal economy and social security coverage is characterized in detail; various legal forms of social security (for example, government social security, social insurance (mandatory as well as voluntary) and social support) are analyzed; and the possibilities of their application to informal workers in the BRICS countries are defined.

The non-observed economy is an integral part of the modern economic system. It is a threat to economic security in conditions of slow stagnation. The relevance of this study lies in the fact that the identification of factors influencing the non-observed economy makes it possible to develop proposals to combat this phenomenon. Also, this paper describes the problems that researchers in the Republic of Moldova face when econometrically modeling the dependence of the non-observed economy on socio-economic indicators. The novelty and purpose of the study is the construction of models with one equation, where the endogenous variable is the level of the non-observed economy in value terms and the share of the non-observed economy in Gross Domestic Product. The main research methods are regression analysis and economic and mathematical modeling. At the first step of the study, the identified main factors of influence that determine the size of the shadow economy in twenty-eight countries were systematized. In the next step, the authors established the available series of statistical data published by the National Bureau of Statistics and determined exogenous variables. The authors used the program for econometric analysis EViews 9 in constructing the models. The single equation models were tested inclusively for first and second-order autocorrelation and heteroscedasticity. The constructed models showed that the non-observed economy is positively affected by the growth of the main sectors of the national economy and by an increase in the unemployment rate. While the rise in foreign trade turnover, namely imports, negatively affects the endogenous variable. There is an identical (negative) relationship between the freight turnover and the level of the non-observed economy.

During the process of development of remote regions of Russian Empire, the state played the most important role, legislatively regulating the resettlement process and penal colonization. Despite the efforts of the state, informal economic practices became the means of adaptation of migrants to the new climatic and social circumstances they were exposed to as a result of migration. The variety of the practices was most vividly manifested during the years of large-scale peasant resettlements to Siberia at the turn of the 19th — 20th c. This phenomenon was reflected in the reports, essays and travel diaries of officials, which supervised the land management matters of the resettlement, which made possible the comparison of informal economic practices in different climatic zones — the taiga and the steppe. The methodological basis of the study is the concept of the informal economy by T. Shanina, which considers the informal practices as a universal restorative mechanism that makes it possible to “soften” the most acute social and economic contradictions. That mechanism provides survival in such conditions when other social mechanisms fail. The resettlement households of the taiga regions were characterized by primitive methods of deforestation and felling for sale to the steppe districts, which prompted chances in the nature of urmans. As a consequence of the informal economic behavior of late settlers in the areas with abundant forests, the building density of homesteads became high, which resulted in that even newly formed settlements appeared as solid wooden walls. Such dense building development contradicted the directives of the resettlement officials, which appealed to the building statute regulations. In the southern steppe regions of Western Siberia, the settlers used land holdings on the basis of a seizure right using shifting cultivation system and seeding the fields mainly with wheat without applying crop rotation. In the settlements located at the bitter-salt lakes, hydraulic engineering works were carried out. However, the late settlers ignored such improvements; they denied the suitability of the filters, did not monitor their condition, and even contributed to the pollution of the water reservoirs arranged for drinking. The adaptive result of the informal practices is the increased stability of the peasant economy. Depending on the yields, the new settlers was able to transfer the center of economic operations to and survive difficult times. The development of promysels saved peasant families from hunger and financial collapse, yet contributed to the spread of non-progressive, backward forms of land and resource use, which were based on extensive agriculture and a predatory attitude towards nature.

Komi-Permians are the indigenous population of the Perm Kama region. Their traditional drinks include kvass, home brew, beer, moonshine, and herbal teas, made at home from local agricultural products and wild plants. The main purpose of the article is to describe changes in the customs of production and consumption of beverages by the Komi-Permians over the past century and to identify factors that contribute to the maintenance of traditions or the spread of innovations. The study is based on historical and ethnographic methods and the results of research by Russian scientists in the field of exploring the gastronomic culture, traditional cuisine of ethnic groups and the history of their nutrition. Traditional beverages are considered as an element of the food culture of the people and as an ethno-marking feature in the context of household, social and economic development and intercultural interaction. Publications of the 20th c. and modern data indicate a steady commitment of the people to traditional types of drinks until almost the end of the 20th c. Changes in living conditions led to transformations that began to occur most intensively at the end of the last century. Transformations were primarily associated with the inclusion of purchased products into the diet and the expansion of the raw materials base; there also was a slight modification of traditional technologies and conditions for the production of beverages. The sustainability or change of folk traditions is determined by the availability of resources and tools for making drinks, taste preferences, and socio-economic conditions. The changes affected the system of transmitting of folk recipes, and the techniques of practical development of technologies. Presently, special ritual and event practices can be distinguished, in which traditional drinks are still preferred, and the custom of serving folk drinks at official and social events is being developed. Traditional beverages started to play a new role in maintaining the ethnic identity of the Komi-Permians and the representation of folk culture.

The article proposes a modified version of a theoretical model that crowds out less educated workforce from the informal economy in response to a shock in government transfers. The negative impact of universal child benefits (UCB) is measured by the outflow of labour from the informal economy in Poland. After it was introduced in the country in 2016, the “Family 500+” child benefit programme probably caused a permanent outflow of some 160,000 jobs from the labour market. The study verifies this assumption with a real business cycle (RBC) model, with two types of households responding to a positive shock resulting from government transfers. The endogenous growth factor in the model results from the rate of return on higher education and lifelong learning. The model describes the statistical aggregates of the Polish economy. A Bayesian estimation shows an acceptable fit to the time series, which allows for wider use of the fiscal impulse resulting in a decline in the economic activity of beneficiaries. The study adds to a debate on the margins of government intervention in the economy, which at some point may displace less educated workers in the shadow economy.

Charcoal is used in Africa for household energy, and the sector involves different actors with specific business strategies. Based on theories on sustainable business models and livelihoods, charcoal traders in five cities in Niger were surveyed about supply chains and strategies. Most charcoal is imported from Nigeria, and smaller quantities come from Benin and Burkina Faso or domestically. Men dominate the trade. Customers value charcoal quality, tree species, packaging, and low prices. Three groups of traders and their business models were identified: small-scale retailers, large-scale retailers, and wholesalers. The charcoal trade is typically combined with trade in other products and is frequently conducted with family members or friends; laborers are employed for loading and unloading. The charcoal business provides a complementary income for the traders’ livelihoods. Most respondents believed that trade would increase in the future; wholesalers expected promising future business opportunities. This study concludes that improvements should focus on quality, better marketing skills, and more sustainable charcoal sourcing. Charcoal use in the Sahel region of Africa should also be studied further to enable the development of effective policies in the West African bioenergy sector. The cross-border charcoal trade creates a need for coordinated policies for a sustainable charcoal sector in the Sahel region.

Objective: In the face of economic sanctions, most countries use methods to circumvent sanctions, including the expansion of activity in the informal sector of the economy. Sanctions affect the informal economy directly and indirectly, through the formal economy and other channels. To date, various studies on the consequences of sanctions have examined how external economic pressures affect the formal sector of the target economies. This study investigates the effect of economic sanctions on the informal economy in Iran. This study also introduces the factors that lead economic elements to activity in the informal economy. Method: The research method in this study is the autoregression model with distributed intervals according to the significance of the variables. In order to determine the econometric model based on theoretical and empirical studies of Earley and Paxon, the variables affecting the shadow economy for estimation and The difference between the models is that in each model, the variable of sanctions is considered in the form of the concepts of duration of sanctions (size of sanctions period), group sanctions (sanctions with cooperation of several countries and internationally), non-group sanctions (sanctions by one country) and number of sanctions. The data used to estimate the size of the informal economy were extracted by exploratory factor analysis during the years 1978 to 2019. In addition to the sanctions, other variables affecting the size of the informal economy such as per capita GDP, the ratio of loans to the private sector, liquidity, trade openness index, tax revenue, oil and gas revenue, and exchange rates have also been considered. For statistical analysis, self-explanatory econometric method with wide intervals has been used. Results: What was obtained in this study shows that different aspects of the sanctions, including Sanctions Duration, Sanctions Count and NIGO Sender or IGO Sender, have had a significant and positive impact on the size of Iran's informal economy. Also, the results show that other variables such as exchange rate gap, tax revenue, liquidity and oil and gas income have a positive effect on informal economy and the variables of per capita GDP, openness of trade, ratio of domestic credit to private sector have significant negative impact on the informal economy. Conclusion: Sanctions hinder official imports by reducing government funding, while demand still exists in the economy. This gap between formal imports and consumer demand encourages import smuggling. Sanctions also increase inflation. Increased liquidity from cash subsidies has boosted consumer demand for goods and services, but industrial capacity and imports, which have been negatively affected by trade sanctions, are not responding to growing consumer demand. As a result, the gap between the supply of goods and services and consumer demand pushes up the price level and increases inflation. Higher inflation rates reduce people's disposable income and encourage them to seek alternative sources of income through the informal economy. In response to the sanctions, the Iranian government increased restrictions on the foreign exchange market and also increased the share of taxes in the annual budget. Restrictions on the foreign exchange market increase the regulatory burden and provide new rental opportunities for traders. Increasing the tax burden has a significant effect on shifting economic factors, especially small businesses, to the informal economy.

The informal economy is a complex phenomenon present, to a large extent, in both developing and developed countries. Despite an increasing focus on the nexus between public spending and the informal economy, little is known about the moderating role of budget imbalance in this relationship. This study investigates how a budget imbalance moderates the effects of public spending on the informal economy of 32 Asian countries from 2000 to 2017. We have employed the generalized method of moments and various second-generation tests in this analysis to ensure the approach is appropriate and the findings are robust. Our results indicate that increasing public spending and budget imbalance will increase the informal economy size. Interestingly, the effect of public expenditure on the informal economy will enhance with an increase in the budget imbalance. Additionally, we also find that tax burden and economic growth contribute to the increased informal economy in Asian countries. This study also offers some useful policy implications for reducing the informal economy.

The coronavirus (COVID-19) has been disruptive to the global socio-economic production of livelihoods because of the lockdown of national economies. In developing nations, the prolonged impact of the pandemic might stagnate millions of people into poverty because the informal sector contributes a significant share of total employment. This paper explored the socio-economic impact of COVID-19 on the South African informal economy, through a survey conducted with 75 informal workers in KwaDukuza Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The results show that the COVID-19 lockdown amplified the precariousness of informal workers as most participants reported a decline in socio-economic status marked by increased unemployment, poverty and vulnerability. These challenges are also exacerbated by the lack of proactively targeted and timely interventions to cushion those in the informal economy against COVID-induced socio-economic shocks. Without necessary measures to support those in the most precarious jobs amid the pandemic’s prolonged and evolving socio-economic impact, the country is unlikely to address the high levels of poverty and unemployment. The paper also discusses the post-COVID governance implications for the informal economy in South Africa.

Purpose – The aim of this paper is to evaluate contrasting ways of tackling self-employment in the informal sector. Conventionally, the participation of the self-employed in the informal sector has been viewed as a rational economic decision taken when the expected benefits outweigh the costs, and thus enforcement authorities have sought to change the benefit-to-cost ratio by increasing the punishments and chances of being caught. Recently, however, neo-institutional theory has viewed such endeavor as a product of a lack of vertical trust (in government) and horizontal trust (in others) and pursued trust-building strategies to nurture voluntary compliance. Design/methodology/approach – To evaluate these contrasting policy approaches, data are reported from special Eurobarometer survey 92.1 conducted in 2019 across 28 European countries (the 27 member states of the European Union and the United Kingdom) involving over 27,565 interviews. Findings – Using probit regression analysis, the finding is that the likelihood of participation in informal self-employment is not associated with the level of expected punishments and chances of being caught, but is significantly associated with the level of vertical and horizontal trust, with a greater likelihood of participation in informal self-employment when there is lower vertical and horizontal trust. Practical implications – The outcome is a call for state authorities to shift away from the use of repressive policy measures that increase the penalties and chances of being caught and toward trust-building strategies to nurture voluntary compliance. How this can be achieved is explored. Originality/value – Evidence is provided to justify a shift toward seeking trust-building strategies by state authorities to engender voluntary compliance among the self-employed operating in the informal sector in Europe.

Abstract Background Returning to work after childbirth is challenging for working mothers. Childcare quality may have lifelong effects on children’s health, development and cognitive function. Over 60% of working women globally are informal workers without employment or maternity protection, but little is known about how these women care for their children. Methods We conducted a mixed-methods longitudinal cohort study among informal women workers in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa between July 2018 and August 2019. Participants were followed up from late pregnancy until they had returned to work. We conducted structured quantitative interviews and in-depth qualitative interviews at different time points: before and after the baby was born, and after returning to work. Subsequently, a photovoice activity was conducted with groups of participants to explore the childcare environment. We employed narrative thematic analysis for qualitative data and descriptive analysis for quantitative data. Results 24 women were recruited to participate. Women returned to work soon after the baby was born, often earlier than planned, because of financial responsibilities to provide for the household and new baby. Women had limited childcare choices and most preferred to leave their babies with family members at home, as the most convenient, low cost option. Otherwise, mothers chose paid carers or formal childcare. However, formal childcare was reported to be poor quality, unaffordable and not suited to needs of informal workers. Mothers expressed concern about carers’ reliability and the safety of the childcare environment. Flexibility of informal work allowed some mothers to adapt their work to care for their child themselves, but others were unable to arrange consistent childcare, sometimes leaving the child with unsuitable carers to avoid losing paid work. Mothers were frequently anxious about leaving the child but felt they had no choice as they needed to work. Conclusion Mothers in informal work had limited childcare options and children were exposed to unsafe, poor-quality care. Maternity protection for informal workers would support these mothers to stay home longer to care for themselves, their family and their baby. Provision of good quality, affordable childcare would provide stability for mothers and give these vulnerable children the opportunity to thrive.

The vast and rapid dynamism in economic policies towards improved and speedy policy implementation aided by unrelenting technology capabilities have also transitioned into the tax administration economy. E-taxation is steadily taking the place of manual taxation. Electronic tax system expresses fast, convenient, cost efficient, organized and transparent taxation rather than tasking, time consuming and tax officials-tax payers’ corruption ridden operations of manual taxation. This article, engaging exploratory-qualitative research technique, examines multinational peculiarities of automated taxation to draw lessons from issues emanating from implementation, adoption and compliance. It further shed light on challenges of migrating e-tax collection to informal economies in Nigeria. From the extant review of cross-cultural literatures, it was revealed that developed and developing countries are gradually embracing and making constant efforts towards transitioning into a more established e-tax system. Countries like USA, China, Canada, Japan, Russia, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Kenya already joined in adopting etaxation. The paper argued that inadequate database of taxable individuals; expensive internet infrastructure, cyberspace crime and limited awareness among tax payers are drawing back implementation of e-taxation in the Nigerian informal economies, and subsequently suggests practicable policy options.

Purpose: The LED in South Africa complies with the formalisation of economies, the legislative context and the economic development framework. It involves the progression of the informal economy through consideration of its characteristics and potentials together with the standard LED requirements that associate the notion of a green economy and the connections among the unregulated and the official economies. This study investigates the relationship between the informal economy and the LED in the Thembisile Hani local municipality in South Africa. Methodology: The scholarship uses face-to-face interviews to collect data from respondents in the Thembisile Hani municipality regarding their economic survival experiences. Findings: The study results show that several limitations such as infrastructure, capital, suitable skills, excessive regulations and security apprehensions compromise the informal economy growth. In addition, the study showed that employment opportunities are created in the informal sector for poverty reduction and economic improvement. Furthermore, inclusive economic development is required because the government have excluded the informal economy from their economic planning processes. Implications: Municipalities should ensure the enhancement of basic knowledge and a better environment for the informal economy players to create the bridge between the unofficial economy and a sustainable LED in the country.

Декларация Министров труда и занятости стран БРИКС “Квалифицированные рабочие места и инклюзивная политика в области занятости” гарантирует, что формализация рынков занятости является глобальным приоритетом для стран БРИКС, поскольку неформальная занятость препятствует производительности, потенциальному экономическому росту и усилиям по повышению благосостояния населения. Принимая во внимание эту стратегическую цель, авторы анализируют процессы неформальной занятости в странах БРИКС и размышляют о переходе от неформальной занятости к формальной. В статье затрагиваются вопросы неоднородного понятийного диапазона, используемого для определения неформальной занятости. Предлагается использовать возможности трудового законодательства и государственной политики в области занятости (увеличение числа официальных рабочих мест, динамичное развитие трудового законодательства, направленное на регулирование новых форм занятости). Подробно охарактеризован потенциал права на социальное обеспечение для достижения целей перехода к формальной экономике и охвату социальным обеспечением, проанализированы правовые формы социального обеспечения (государственное социальное обеспечение, социальное страхование (обязательное и добровольное), социальная поддержка), определены возможности их применения к неформальным работникам в странах БРИКС.

Considering the significant decrease of investment and GDP in Greece, and the goal of achieving a V-shaped post-COVID-19 recovery, inward FDI could be regarded as a source of productive private investment. This study aims to indicate differences in the factors determining inward FDI in Greece before and after the great crisis and the role of the informal economy on Greece’s inward FDI. This study explores the perceptions of multinational enterprises’ upper management regarding motives of and barriers to locating their activities in Greece, the role of the informal economy and how these perceptions changed before and after the great economic crisis of late 2000s. The results indicate that the relation between inward FDI and the informal economy depends on types of entry and that tax evasion opportunities can impact positively on the motives of foreign investors.

Purpose – This paper aims to explore the responses of households in the informal economic sector to the Cameroon Government strategy against Covid-19 in Yaounde, Cameroon between March and May 2020. Design/methodology/approach – Given the recency of Covid-19, the exploratory design was used to collect and analyse information for the study. Empirical data was obtained through personal observations and questionnaires, whereas grey data were sourced from official sources in government and international agencies in Yaounde. The mode of the ordinal data generated from the questionnaire was used to characterise the attitudes of respondents to quarantine measures and bar charts were used to illustrate the distribution of responses. Findings – The government’s strategy against Covid-19 was largely ignored in Yaounde between March and May 2020 because of the influence of the predominantly informal economy on household’s ability to allocate scarce resources between the competing needs of protecting their health on the one hand, and their livelihoods on the other hand. Poor households had to walk a difficult line between shutting down their businesses to protect their health or risking Covid-19 infections to protect their livelihoods. Over 53.1% of respondents thought quarantine measures were unsuccessful as over 63% ignored them. Quarantining and Social distancing were also difficult in informal settlements because of structural congestion. Research limitations/implications – Perhaps, the greatest limitation of this study was the use of non-probability sampling. As such, sampling error could not be estimated, blurring the ability to ascertain the degree of similarity between the sample and the study population. This made sample generalisability difficult. Practical implications – There are short-term and long-term policy implications of these findings. Basic comprehensive measures including food and water distribution, as well as rent holidays, must be implemented in informal neighbourhoods to ensure more successful quarantines in future pandemics. In the long run, investments in urban social housing must be carried out to reduce slums, an ever-present risk factor in the rapid propagation of infections. Originality/value – The originality of this study is first, in its level of analysis which is the household. By measuring household responses to quarantine measures within defined neighbourhoods, the study deviates from most that have adopted a theoretical approach and conducted analysis at country or regional levels. Few studies have attempted to investigate the failure of quarantine measures against Covid-19 from the viewpoint of the occupational characteristics of the populations involved.

Street vending has persisted for centuries and pervasive across the globe since it plays a remarkable role in fulfilling customer needs in the context of the informal economy. In the contemporary business context, authorities have not paid sufficient attention towards street vendors. The paper addresses the specific features of street vending in the context of Sri Lanka, various challenges faced by street vendors and possible courses of action for the empowerment of street vendors. Accordingly, location issue with lack of infrastructure, less support from the government, insecurity and unstable conditions, slow growth, lack of financing opportunities and less support from banks were identified as major challenges faced by street vendors in Sri Lanka. Proper location and infrastructure development, assurance of security including a specific insurance scheme and financial assistance are proposed to empower street vendors to enhance their performance.

In recent decades scholars have acknowledged that transactions in the informal economy have not vanished with modernization and industrialization as expected but rather remain an important contemporary aspect of overall production and consumption across the world, in both developing and developed countries. Yet little is known about the profile of the consumers in this realm or what drives them to purchase from the informal economy. A systematic review of the literature investigating consumption in the informal economy reveals a severely underdeveloped area of consumer studies with significant gaps in terms of its theoretical approaches, methods and regional coverage. The findings of the existing literature is that multiple motives are used by consumers for justifying their purchases in the informal economy beyond the dominant simplistic view that they do simply for financial gain or for a lower price (namely, it identifies social ends and failures in formal market provision in terms of availability, speed of provision and quality). The outcome is a recognition that responsibility to reducing this phenomenon with negative effects on governments, businesses, workers and consumers lies not just with public authorities but also practitioners who need to correct the failures in formal market provision. The significant gaps identified in the literature are then used to highlight a comprehensive future research agenda, which includes the need for the development of an institutionalist theoretical perspective when explaining consumers‘ participation in the informal economy and social marketing interventions.

This paper explores the impacts of informal economic activities and institutional capacity, particularly, corruption control on the environmental quality degradation of emerging economies under the prevailing socio-economic conditions and energy use patterns of the countries. The study utilizes key environmental degradation indicators: Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, ecological footprints (EFs), and Nitrous Oxide (NO) emissions, and a panel dataset of 15 emerging countries for the period 2002–2019 to undertake an empirical investigation. The pooled mean group (PMG)-ARDL estimator, Fully Modified OLS (FMOLS), Dynamic OLS (DOLS) and Augmented Mean Group (AMG) methods have been applied as empirical investigation techniques. The empirical findings reveal that in the long-run informal economic activities positively affect the environmental quality with fewer recorded emissions of CO2 and EFs while these activities affect negatively to NO emissions. This study has also found that corruption control improves environmental quality by reducing EFs and NO emissions but works to the opposite by increasing recorded CO2 emissions. An increase in economic growth and renewable energy consumption improves environmental quality in emerging countries, while consumption of non-renewable energy degrades the environmental quality. The robust empirical findings advocate policy initiatives for intense monitoring of informal activities and implementation of indirect tax policy to regulate informal activities and the pollution they cause. Careful measures of corruption control and initiatives to bring the informal economic activities into a formal framework are suggested to reduce CO2 and NO emissions. An increase in economic growth with more focus on renewables and phasing out non-renewables can ensure green growth in emerging countries.

This paper estimates the size of the value added of the informal economy for 157 countries over 1991 to 2017 with the help of the MIMIC-method. The results show that OECD countries have by far the smallest informal economies, with sizes below 20 percent of official GDP. Moreover, informal economies are larger in Latin American and sub-Saharan African countries, averaging almost 38 and 39 percent of GDP, respectively. The average informal-economy size over all 157 countries and over 1991–2017 is 30.9 percent. The average decline in informal-economy size from 1991 to 2017 is a remarkable 6.8 percentage points. In addition, results of the size and development of undeclared or informal employment all over the world are shown. Except for Eastern Europe and Central Asia and Southern Africa, informal employment is above 50% of total employment and even over 88% in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Finally, some policy measures to reduce the informal economy and conclusions are given.

This study examines the possible influence of formalising women's cooperatives on Jordan's informal economy. At the same time, to produce empirical evidence from a theoretical perspective, we study how the crucial challenges of the informal economy affect formalisation. This is an empirical study, both descriptive and inferential, in which several databases are used to extract the relevant data from the sample of 66 Jordanian women's cooperatives in the period from 2011 to 2020. A dynamic panel data model is used for the study variables with controlling for specific fixed effects. The findings indicate that the formalisation policy in the cooperative sector does not affect the informal economy. Instead, the challenges significantly affect the informal economy.