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Abstract Backscatter communications, which originated from World War II, have been widely applied in the logistics domain, and recently attract emerging interest from both academic and industrial circles. Here, the backscatter communication systems equipped with retrodirective arrays that can re‐transmit the impinging signals back toward the direction of incidence are studied so as to reduce the power loss of the signals. Specifically, the authors consider the tag is equipped with retrodirective arrays to improve reliability and enhance communication range. The probability density function of channel coefficients is then derived. Next, a channel estimator based on Bayesian theory is proposed to acquire the modulus values of channel parameters and calculate its Bayesian Cramer–Rao Lower Bound. Finally, simulation results are provided to corroborate these theoretical studies.

Considering tag sensitivity and in-phase and quadrature-phase imbalance (IQI), this paper investigates the reliability and security of a cognitive radio (CR)-aided ambient backscatter communication (AmBC) non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) system. Herein, the source communicates with its NOMA users in the presence of an eavesdropper, and to bolster security, artificial noise (AN) injection is introduced. The effects of non-ideal successive interference cancellation (SIC) and AN removal on system performance are also examined. Subsequently, outage probabilities (OPs) and interception probabilities (IPs) of the tag and NOMA signals are derived, with asymptotic results for further insights. Finally, simulation results are provided to validate the theoretical analysis. It is observed that both reliability and security remain stable even as interference or maximum transmission power increases up to a certain threshold. Furthermore, the reliability under NOMA mechanism outperforms that of orthogonal multiple access. Notably, IQI can consistently enhance the confidentiality of NOMA but selectively strengthen backscatter transmission, albeit at the expense of reliability. This paper comprehensively underscores the potential for real-world implementation by incorporating sensitivity constraints, IQI, AN, and imperfect SIC into the system model.

To fill the research gap in the mechanical and physical properties of different varieties of sweet potatoes at different points in the harvest period and to provide a theoretical basis for the design of key components of the sweet potato harvester, the physical properties of Su-Shu 16, Su-Shu 36, and Ning-Zi 4 during the harvest period were studied at three time points: 15 October, 25 October, and 4 November 2023. The moisture content of sweet potatoes was determined using the DGF30/7-IA electric hot air-drying oven. The results showed that the moisture content of sweet potatoes decreased with increasing growth time at three different time points during the harvest period. The moisture content of Su-Shu 16 was, on average, 12.74% higher than that of Su-Shu 36, while the moisture content of Ning-Zi 4 was, on average, 8.07% higher than that of Su-Shu 36. The density of Su-Shu 36 measured by the drainage method is greater than that of Su-Shu 16 and Ning-Zi 4, but the difference is relatively small, and the density tends to decrease slowly with the increase of growth time. Using an electronic universal testing machine, compression tests were conducted on Su-Shu 16, Su-Shu 36, and Ning-Zi 4 at loading speeds of 5 mm/min and 10 mm/min, respectively. The results showed that the compressive strength limit range of Su-Shu 36 was slightly higher than that of Su-Shu 16 and significantly higher than that of Ning-Zi 4. The Poisson’s ratio, elastic modulus, and shear modulus values of Su-Shu 16 and Su-Shu 36 were similar and much higher than those of Ning-Zi 4. Studying sweet potatoes’ growth and physical characteristics for different purposes can provide data references for the design of digging depth, working width, and conveyor chain gap of sweet potato harvesters, as well as data references for sweet potato simulation experiments.

Passive backscatter communication can free wireless sensors from limited-life batteries and heavy manual maintenance, and will also reduce their hardware cost.Passive backscatter communication is one of the key technologies to realize the passive internet of things (IoT).Due to the limited resources of passive sensor nodes, how to use coding technology to improve system reliability has become a challenging problem for passive IoT.The coding and decoding technologies of passive nodes in the passive IoT were focused on.Firstly, the development history of traditional channel coding and the existing RFID channel coding and decoding schemes were systematically expounded.Then, three suitable coding schemes were selected for passive backscatter communication technology.Finally, the performance of these three encoding schemes were compared by simulation and the advantages and disadvantages were summarized.

This paper used the 4UM-120D electric leafy vegetable harvester as the research object and designed a travel speed automatic control system to maintain the travel speed within a set value of ±2% in order to improve the efficiency and quality of leafy vegetable harvester operations and decrease the work intensity of the operator. The harvester’s travel speed was automatically controlled by using the PID, adaptive fuzzy PID, and sliding mode control techniques after the mechanical and electrical equations for the travel drive motor (a DC brushless motor) were established in MATLAB. By simulating various working situations, the stability, accuracy, and speed of the automatic control system were compared and analyzed using the adjustment time, overshoot, steady-state transition time, and maximum deviation from the set speed as evaluation indicators. The test results revealed that when the current value of the leafy vegetable harvester travel speed deviated from the set value by more than 2%, the dynamic response performance and stability of the DC brushless motor travel drive system based on the sliding mode control strategy was significantly better than that of the PID and adaptive fuzzy PID control strategies, and its anti-disturbance was stronger, achieving the function of automatic control of the harvester travel speed. When the travel motor started with a constant load and the sliding mode control strategy’s parameters were the gain factors A = 1/70, c = 100, ε = 100, and k = 100, the travel drive system regulation time was 1.5 s, and the overshoot was 10%. When the harvester was operating smoothly and had leafy vegetable collection baskets loaded and unloaded, the steady-state transition time was 0.3 s. According to the actual engineering application experience, the specific technical state of the control strategy of the agricultural machinery travel speed automatic control system was: regulation time 2.5~3 s; overshoot amount 20~25%; and steady-state transition time 1.0~1.5 s, so the travel speed automatic control system of the electric leafy vegetable harvester in sliding mode was in line with the technical state requirements. The results of the field trials demonstrated the accuracy of the simulation test results. This study offered a method to lessen the work intensity of operators and increase the operating efficiency and quality of a leafy vegetable harvester.

Ambient backscatter communication (AmBC) addresses connectivity, cost, and congestion bottlenecks for the Internet of Things (IoT) deployment. AmBC, by avoiding a dedicated power infrastructure and carrier emitter, allows tags to communicate by simply reflecting the ambient radio frequency (RF) signals to the reader. Thus, the tag can operate in the low-maintenance, battery-free mode and with energy harvesting. However, a fundamental bottleneck is the limited communication range. A novel solution is that the tag can use a tunnel diode amplifier to enhance its backscattered signal power and thus extend the communication range. This paper studies the tunnel diode amplifier solution and investigates the resulting capacity performance. Specifically, we first develop the system’s mathematical model, elaborate on the tunnel diode’s amplification mechanism, and derive its reflection gain. Subsequently, we derive the closed-form channel capacity and propose a reader-tag distance adjustment scheme to improve the system’s performance. Finally, simulation results corroborate our theoretical results. They show that the tunnel diode amplifier can significantly increase the system capacity by an order of magnitude when the tag receives less than -30 dBm of incident RF signal power. They also demonstrate a significant increase in the communication range.

At present, all most sweet potato crushing machineries are improved based on potato seedling killer or straw crushing and returning the machine and adopt single-roller mulch type seedling killing structure, and there are problems such as low crushing qualification rate of ridge vines, easy entanglement of stalks, and high damage rate. This not only requires manual further removal of the vines, but also the damaged sweet potato cannot be stored, which affects the yield. To solve the problems, a double-roller sweet potato vine crushing and returning machine with the structure of the front roller picking and the back roller crushing was designed. The Box-Behnken test design method was adopted to establish a quadratic regression model that took the picking roller speed, the cutter roller speed, and the ground clearance as the test factors, and the vines breaking qualified rate, the stubble height, and the sweet potato damage rate as evaluating indicators. The analysis of the influence of interactive factors showed that the contribution rate of each factor to the vines breaking qualified rate was picking roller speed> cutter roller speed > ground clearance; the contribution rate of each factor to the stubble height was ground clearance> pickling roller speed > cutter roller speed; the contribution rate of various factors to the sweet potato damage rate was ground clearance> cutter roller speed > pickling roller speed. The optimization results showed that when the picking roller speed was 631 r/min, the cutter roller speed was 1906 r/min, and the ground clearance was 21 mm, the vines breaking qualified rate was 96.2%, the stubble height was 28.8 mm, and the sweet potato damage rate was 0.16%. The research results can provide new test schemes and complete design parameters for sweet potato vine crushing operations.

In this study, a 4UM-120D electric leafy vegetable harvester was employed as the research object. An automatic control system was created to maintain the cutter’s height above the ground within ±2% of the desired value. The intention was to reduce the operators’ work intensity while improving the leafy vegetable harvester’s working quality. The automatic control system for the cutter height from the ground was explained, along with its structure and operating philosophy. MATLAB was used to establish the two-phase hybrid stepper motor’s mathematical electrical equation and mechanical equation models. An analysis was carried out on the fundamentals and differences between position PID and incremental PID control algorithms. Utilizing incremental PID in combination, the control strategy for the harvester cutter height from the ground was built, and an automatic control system was produced under the corresponding control strategy. The stability, accuracy, and rapidity of the automatic control system of the cutter height from the ground under the incremental PID control strategy were analyzed by simulating different actual working conditions with MATLAB/Simulink and taking the steady-state transition time as the evaluation index. The test results show that when the deviation between the current value and the set value was greater than 2%—that is, when the harvester was in the condition of suddenly crossing the ditch or suddenly climbing the slope—the automatic control system based on the incremental PID control strategy had a good dynamic response performance and stability. This resulted in the automatic control function of the harvester cutter height off the ground being achieved. When the rotation angle PID control algorithm’s proportional coefficient is Kp = 4.665, the rotation speed PID control algorithm’s proportional coefficient is Kp = 5.65 and its integral coefficient is Ki = 3.86, and the current PID control algorithm’s proportional coefficient is Kp = 0.5455 and its integral coefficient is Ki = 30.4578. The harvester abruptly crossed a ditch while operating steadily, and the automatic control system’s steady-state transition time for the height of the cutter off the ground was 1.0811 s. The harvester abruptly climbed a slope while operating steadily, and the automatic control system’s steady-state transition time for the height of the cutter off the ground was 1.1185 s. Data from the field tests revealed a degree of reliability in the simulation test results. The study offered a strategy for raising the harvester quality for leafy vegetables while lowering the operator workload.

Since the radio frequency identification (RFID) technology was put forward,it has been widely used in the transportation,logistics,industry and business due to its convenience and high efficiency.As a carrier for storing recognizable data,the RFID tags play a crucial role in the Internet of things (IoT).More and more functions and modules are embedded in the RFID tags and developed into smart tags in different application fields.Recently,wireless batteryless smart tags have arisen and grown rapidly with the development of the IoT and various emerging backscatter technologies.Wireless batteryless smart tags use the passive backscatter technology to harvest the energy and transmit information through radio frequency signals.Starting from the RFID technology,the history of the RFID and smart tags was introduced briefly,the differences between traditional smart tags and emerging wireless smart tags were compared,the advantages of wireless batteryless smart tags were concluded,several specific applications of it in different fields were listed,and the open challenges were analyzed.

Energy source and circuit cost are two critical challenges for the future development of the Internet of Things (IoT). Backscatter communications offer a potential solution to conveniently obtain power and reduce cost for sensors in IoT, and researchers are paying close attention to the technology. Backscatter technology originated from the Second World War and has been widely applied in the logistics domain. Recently, both the academic and industrial worlds are proposing a series of new types of backscatter technologies for communications and IoT. In this paper, we review the history of both IoT and backscatter, describe the new types of backscatter, demonstrate their applications, and discuss the open challenges.

The millimeter-wave (mmWave) technology is one possible solution to addressing the explosive requirements for mobile data access on high-speed railways (HSRs). However, utilizing the mmWave technology on HSRs will result in large Doppler shifts, which should be estimated and compensated. Traditional Doppler shift estimators, such as the cyclic prefix (CP)-based estimator (CPBE), the two-training-symbol-based estimator (TBE), and the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE), have inferior estimation accuracy especially at low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, we, therefore, propose three new Doppler shift estimators for mmWave communication systems on HSRs: a radio environment map (REM)-based estimator (RBE) derived from the maximum a posteriori algorithm; an equally-divided structure-based estimator (ESBE) that divides the effective orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing symbol (OFDM) into multiple equal fragments; and an enhanced ESBE (EESBE) that takes the results of RBE as a priori knowledge. Simulation results show that these three algorithms outperform existing Doppler shift estimators in mmWave communication systems on HSRs.

When sowing with a wide boundary under full rice straw retention in the rice–wheat rotation area of China, conventional fertilization methods have some problems, such as a low fertilizer utilization rate, heap soil around a buried fertilizer device, or blocked fertilizing orifice. Firstly, combined with theoretical analysis, discrete element numerical simulation technology, and central composite test method, the wide-boundary fertilization device for wheat wide-boundary sowing was designed. Then, with the coefficient of variation for particle uniformity (CVPU) as the response value, the central composite experiment was carried out on the key structural parameters (focal length coefficient, lateral span, tilt angle, and ground clearance) of the wide-boundary fertilization device by EDEM software. Finally, the influential rules of core factors of the device on the CVPU were analyzed by Design-Expert software; then, the optimal parameter combination was determined and verified by a field test. The results showed that all factors had significant effects on the CVPU. The primary and secondary factors affecting the CVPU were the tilt angle, lateral span, focal length coefficient, ground clearance, tilt angle × ground clearance, and lateral span × ground clearance, in which there were certain interactions between the tilt angle and ground clearance and lateral span and ground clearance. When the focal length coefficient, lateral span, tilt angle, and ground clearance were 1.5, 60 mm, 30°, and 192 mm, respectively, the lateral was minimum. In this case, the theoretical value and field test value were 14.11% and 17.63%, respectively. The field test value is consistent with the theoretical calculation value. This study could provide references for the design of a fertilizer-spreading device with a wide boundary.

Collision of falling in the mechanical harvesting process of sweet potato is one of the main causes of epidermal destruction and damage to sweet potato tubers. Therefore, a sweet potato mechanical characteristic test and a full-factor sweet potato drop test were designed. Based on the analysis of the fitting mathematical model, the impact of the drop height, collision material and sweet potato chunk size on the damage of the sweet potato were studied. The mathematical models were established by fitting analysis of the IBM SPSS Statistics 22 software between the drop height and the sweet potato chunk size with each test index (impact force, impact stress, broken skin area and damaged area). The critical epidermal destruction height and the critical damage height of a certain size of sweet potato when it collides with a collision material can be calculated by the mathematical model, and the critical epidermal destruction mass and critical damage mass of sweet potato when it falls from a certain height and collides with a collision material can also be calculated. Then a series of critical values (including critical epidermal destruction force value, critical epidermal destruction impact stress, critical damage force value, critical damage impact stress) of mechanical properties of sweet potato were obtained. The results show that the impact deformation of sweet potato includes both elastic and plastic ones, and has similar stress relaxation characteristics. The critical damage impact stress of sweet potato is that the average value of the impact stress on the contact surface is less than it's Firmness. The results provided a theoretical basis for understanding the collision damage mechanism of sweet potato and how to reduce the damage during harvest.

This paper proposes a blind channel estimator based on expectation maximization algorithm and historical information-based basis expansion model for uplink wireless communication systems on high speed railways. The information of basis matrices is obtained from the uplink data of the past trains at the base station (BS). With the known basis matrices at the BS, our suggested estimator can estimate the basis coefficients and recover the channel parameters without requiring training symbols. The modified Cramer-Rao bound is derived for the estimated basis coefficients and the computational complexity of the proposed estimator is analyzed. Numerical results are then provided to corroborate our studies. It is shown that the proposed estimator outperforms existing data-aided estimators, including least square and linear minimum mean square error.

Ambient backscatter is an emerging green communication technology that exploits the environmental radio frequency (RF) signals to enable passive devices to communicate with each other. This paper investigates channel capacity and outage performance of ambient backscatter communication systems. Specifically, a calculation method is proposed to facilitate capacity analysis, and the ambient backscatter system capacities are derived in the case of four different RF signals. It is surprisingly found that the channel capacity is obtained when the RF signals are not equiprobably backscattered by tag, and that the capacity with complex Gaussian RF signals is not exactly twice that with real ones for the ambient backscatter communication systems. Then, the outage probability and its asymptotic value in the high signal-to-noise ratio regime are obtained. Since the exact outage expression consists of an infinite number of terms, a tight truncation error bound is derived to reasonably estimate the number of effective terms for numerical simulation. Finally, simulation results are provided to corroborate theoretical analysis.

Ambient backscatter technology has attracted much attention recently, because it enables battery-free devices, such as tags or sensors, to communicate through wireless energy harvesting and radio backscattering. Existing studies about ambient backscatter assume that the tags have only two states: backscatter or non-backscatter. Actually, some references have shown that the tags can readily realize three states: positive and negative phase backscatter, and non-backscatter. In this paper, we propose a new coding scheme for these tags with three states to improve the throughput of the ambient backscatter communication system. We then design a maximum a posteriori (MAP) detector for the reader to extract binary information from ternary coded signals. We also analyze the detection performance in terms of closed-form bit error rate (BER) expressions. It is found that the proposed coding scheme can improve the throughput of an ambient backscatter system, and there exists an error floor for the BER curve. Finally, simulation results are provided to corroborate our theoretical studies.

Ambient backscatter is a new technology that uses ambient signals to enable communication between battery-free tags (or sensors) and readers. Previous studies on ambient backscatter focused on scenarios with only one tag. In this paper, we investigate the ambient backscatter communication system with multiple tags and analyze the performance of tag selection. Specifically, we formulate a tag selection scheme and design the corresponding detection method. Our results indicate that obtaining the closed-form bit-error rate (BER) in such cases is challenging; hence, we provide a solution for deriving an approximate BER. The simulation results show that the approximated BER curves are in agreement with the exact curves.

Physical layer (PHY) security is recently regarded as a promising technique to improve the security performance of wireless communication networks. Current developments in PHY security are often based on the assumption of perfect channel state information (CSI). In this paper, both security and reliability performance for the downlink cloud radio access network with optimal remote radio heads (RRHs) node selection are investigated in a practical scenario by considering channel estimation (CE) errors. In particular, a three-phase transmission scheme is proposed and the linear minimum mean-square error (MMSE) estimation method is utilized to obtain the CSI. Based on the CSI estimates and the statistics of CE errors, the outage probability and intercept probability are derived in closed-form expression to evaluate the security and reliability performance, respectively. In addition, two possible cases (with or without intercepting signals from baseband unit) are considered for the eavesdropper. It is found that the suggested optimal RRHs selection scheme outperforms the nonselection scheme, and that the increasing number of RRHs can lower the outage probability as well as the intercept probability. It is also shown that there exists an optimal training number to minimize the sum of the outage probability and intercept probability. Finally, simulation results are provided to corroborate our proposed studies.

Joint carrier frequency offset (CFO) and channel estimation is considered for two-way relay networks (TWRNs). Existing estimators provide only the convolved channel parameters and the mixed CFO values. In contrast, estimators using a superimposed training strategy are developed for the individual frequency and channel parameters. Depending on the number of pilots, three different estimators are developed. An iterative estimator with low complexity is also developed to further improve the estimation accuracy. The Cramér-Rao Bounds (CRBs) are derived. The simulations show that the iterative estimator converges rapidly, and the resultant estimation mean square error (MSE) approaches the CRB. For the special case of small CFO between the two source terminals, the MSE achieves the CRB at high SNRs, and the iterative algorithm is not necessary. However, for the general case, the gap between the MSE and the CRB indicates that there is room for further improvement of the estimation accuracy.