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Radiopaque lesions of jaws are innumerable and variable in appearance. There are several radiopaque lesions seen in the periapical region of tooth root which are indistinguishable from other lesions. The diagnosis and management of these lesions from clinical and radiographic features could be challenging to the dentist. Alterations in the bone could be inflammatory cystic odontogenic and non-odontogenic neoplastic reactive vascular traumatic dysplastic or metabolic in origin. As intraoral periapical radiographs IOPA provide the best image resolution they can aid in identifying the subtle changes in the bone architecture periodontal ligament Pdl space and lamina dura. Radiographic analysis of the involvement of adjacent structures using panoramic imaging is not sufficient for diagnosis as it provides 2D imaging of a 3D object. Cone Beam Computed Tomography CBCT provides an accurate 3D image of the involvement of bone and adjacent structures. Systematic radiologic analysis of lesions based on their location size shape borders internal structure effect on surrounding structures and consideration of clinical signs and symptoms enable clinicians to arrive at a reliable diagnosis. Here we present a case report of an asymptomatic radiopaque lesion associated with the root of an unerupted supernumerary tooth which was accidentally detected on an IOPA taken for treating the adjacent tooth.

Existing non-verbal ability tests are typically protected by copyright, preventing them from being freely adapted or computerized. Working towards an open science framework, we provide 80 novel, open-access abstract reasoning items, an online implementation and item-level data from 659 participants aged between 11 and 33 years: the matrix reasoning item bank (MaRs-IB). Each MaRs-IB item consists of an incomplete matrix containing abstract shapes. Participants complete the matrices by identifying relationships between the shapes. Our data demonstrate age differences in non-verbal reasoning accuracy, which increased during adolescence and stabilized in early adulthood. There was a slight linear increase in response times with age, resulting in a peak in efficiency (i.e. a measure combining speed and accuracy) in late adolescence. Overall, the data suggest that the MaRs-IB is sensitive to developmental differences in reasoning accuracy. Further psychometric validation is recommended.

Background and Objectives: In vivo stains are prompt resources, which have emerged, in the recent years, to aid as clinical diagnostic tools in detecting early premalignant and malignant lesions. The aim of the study was to determine the diagnostic efficiency of toluidine blue with Lugol′s iodine in oral premalignancies and malignancies and to evaluate the reliability of in vivo staining with toluidine blue and Lugol′s iodine in the lesions at risk of malignancy. Materials and Methods: The study group comprised 30 subjects with clinically suspicious premalignant lesions and 30 subjects with clinically suspicious malignant lesions. All the lesions were stained consecutively with toluidine blue and Lugol′s iodine and the dye retention were recorded with photographs. Depending on the retention of the dyes, the biopsy site was determined. The biopsy specimens were sent for histological confirmation and results were statistically analyzed. Results: The overall diagnostic accuracy of Lugol′s iodine when used consecutively with toluidine blue stain in distinguishing premalignant lesions and malignant lesions was 90%. As the degree of differentiation of malignant lesions progressed toward more severity, they failed to show the retention of Lugol′s iodine and the result was highly significant statistically, with a P value < 0.001. Interpretation and Conclusion: Lugol′s iodine when used with toluidine blue helped in delineating the inflammatory lesions and was the mean source in determining clinically the degrees of differentiation of malignant lesions as the poorly differentiated malignant lesions without glycogen content failed to show Lugol′s iodine retention. Toluidine blue with Lugol′s iodine can be used as a pretherapeutic assessment of the biologic aggressiveness of the disease.

Background: Leukemia is a fatal disease. The oral manifestations of the leukemias occur early in the course of the disease and these oral features can at times act as a diagnostic indicator. Saliva has been used as a diagnostic aid in a number of systemic diseases. Materials and Methods: In our study, samples of unstimulated saliva of 30 leukemia patients who were not on chemotherapy were collected and analyzed for salivary amylase and total protein. The oral manifestations and radiographic changes (OPG) were recorded. The correlation between the oral manifestations and the salivary components (salivary amylase and total protein) was assessed for prognostic significance. Results: In the present study when the mean values of salivary amylase (1280±754 U/ml) and total protein (647.2±320.7 mg%) were compared with that in control subjects. There was a statistically significant difference for amylase levels (PConclusions: The saliva of leukemic patients demonstrated obvious changes in composition. A rise in salivary amylase and total protein levels was evident, with the increase in amylase levels being statistically significant.

Background and Objectives: Lichen planus is a relatively common chronic inflammatory disease of oral mucosa and skin. Cortisol, also called as "stress hormone", has been used as an indicator in various stress evaluation studies. Salivary cortisol measurement is an indicator of free cortisol or biologically active cortisol in human serum and provides noninvasive and easy technique. Recent studies have been conflicting, and hence, in the present study, evaluation of salivary cortisol levels and psychosocial factors in oral lichen planus (OLP) patients was done. Materials and Methods: A total of 30 patients with clinically and histopathologically proven cases of OLP, along with the age and sex-matched healthy controls were included in the study. Samples of stimulated saliva were collected, centrifuged and analyzed for the level of cortisol with cortisol enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Psychosocial factors of study and control groups were measured by depression anxiety and stress scale. Student′s t-test was used to compare the psychological factors and salivary cortisol levels between patients with the OLP and the control group. Results: Irrespective of sex, significantly higher depression (83.4 ± 15.4%), anxiety (80.5 ± 11.3%), and stress (94.2 ± 6.2%) scores were observed in OLP patients compared to controls. Increased cortisol levels were observed among 17 (56.6%) OLP patients in the study group. A positive correlation was found between psychological factors and salivary cortisol levels in the OLP patients. The values of Pearson′s correlation coefficient "r", between depression, anxiety, and stress with salivary cortisol was: +0.42,S; +0.27,NS; and +0.65,HS, respectively among the study group.

Objective : The aim of the study was to assess the severity of the disease in oral submucous fibrosis (OSF), correlate the clinical, functional staging with histopathological staging, and analyze collagen distribution in different stages of OSF using the picrosirius red stain under polarizing microscopy. Materials and Methods : The study included randomly incorporated 50 subjects, of whom 40 were patients with OSF, and 10 were in the control group. Clinical, functional staging in OSF cases was done depending upon definite criteria. A histopathological study was conducted using the hematoxylin and eosin stain and picrosirius red stain. Collagen fibers were analyzed for thickness and polarizing colors. Furthermore, clinical, functional, and histopathological stages were compared. Statistical Analysis : Descriptive data which included mean, SD, and percentages were calculated for each group. Categorical data were analyzed by the chi-square test. Multiple group comparisons were made by one-way ANOVA followed by Student′s t-test for pairwise comparisons. For all tests, a P-value of 0.05 or less was considered for statistical significance. Results : As the severity of the disease increased, clinically, there was definite progression in subjective and objective symptoms. Polarized microscopic, examination revealed, there was a gradual decrease in the green-greenish yellow color of the fibers and a shift to orange red-red color with increase in severity of the disease. Thereby, it appeared that the tight packing of collagen fibers in OSF progressively increased as the disease progressed from early to advanced stages. We observed that the comparison of functional staging with histopathological staging was a more reliable indicator of the severity of the disease. Conclusion : In the present study, we observed that mouth opening was restricted with advancing stages of OSF. The investigation also points to the importance of assessing the cases of OSF, especially with regard to functional and histological staging in planning the treatment.

Ellis-van Creveld syndrome (EvC) is a disease complex, where all the three embryonic layers appear to be involved. This disorder is also called as Chondroectodermal dysplasia. EvC is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from mutations in these patients. Mutations in the two genes EVC and EVC2, have been identified to cause the condition. It has been considered as a skeletal dysplasia with an incidence of approximately 1 out of 1,50,000 live births. A high prevalence has been reported among certain populations like Amish and Arabs of Gaza strip. There are more than 300 cases of EvC reported into the literature. About 50-60% of cases have been reported with congenital cardiac malformations.

Glanzmann′s thrombasthenia is a rare hemorrhagic disorder characterized by prolonged bleeding time and diminished clot retraction. The disease is marked by frequent mucocutaneous hemorrhage which is mainly due to qualitative defects of platelets. A case of a 14-year-old HBsAg-positive adolescent male with Glanzmann′s thrombasthenia has been presented.

Most arthroscopic rotator cuff repairs utilize suture passing devices placed through arthro- scopic cannulas. These devices are limited by the size of the passing device where the suture is passed through the tendon. An alternative technique has been used in the senior author’s practice for the past ten years, where sutures are placed through the rotator cuff tendon using percutaneous passing devices. This technique, dubbed the global percutaneous shuttling technique of rotator cuff repair, affords the placement of sutures from nearly any angle and location in the shoulder, and has the potential advantage of larger suture bites through the tendon edge. These advantages may increase the area of tendon available to compress to the rotator cuff footprint and improve tendon healing and outcomes. The aim of this study is to describe the global percutaneous shuttling (GPS) technique and report our results using this method. The GPS technique can be used for any full thickness rotator cuff tear and is particularly useful for massive cuff tears with poor tissue quality. We recently followed up 22 patients with an average follow up of 32 months to validate its usefulness. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons scores improved significantly from 37 preoperatively to 90 postoperatively (P

Myofunctional appliances encompass a diverse range of intraoral devices that rely on the intrinsic forces of the orofacial musculature for their functionality. These appliances are typically designed to be removable and exhibit a passive mechanism of action. Caries and demineralisation are well known adverse side effects of myofunctional orthodontic appliances, with the most frequent reports relating to fixed appliance treatment. Hereby, the authors present a case report of a 12-year-old male patient with a slight neuromotor defect who developed significant caries and demineralisation of the permanent mandibular anteriors due to the consumption of large quantities of carbonated drinks and acidic fruits while wearing a twin block appliance for eight months and failing to return for regular orthodontic follow-ups. The patient was provided with strategies for oral health training and diet modification. Fluoride varnish was applied to treat the caries and pain caused by hypersensitivity. Additionally, at-home application of GC Tooth Mousse Plus, which is rich in Casein Phosphopeptide-Amorphous Calcium Phosphate Fluoride (CCP-ACPF), was utilised for remineralisation and dentinal tubule occlusion. The mandibular anteriors were restored with composite resin using an ultra-conservative 3D guided technique, alongside preventive care during the fluoride varnish application. The present case report emphasises the risk of decalcification of teeth during orthodontic treatment and the importance of regular dental check-ups.

Abstract The arthropod mushroom body is well-studied as an expansion layer representing olfactory stimuli and linking them to contingent events. However, 8% of mushroom body Kenyon cells in Drosophila melanogaster receive predominantly visual input, and their function remains unclear. Here, we identify inputs to visual Kenyon cells using the FlyWire adult whole-brain connectome. Input repertoires are similar across hemispheres and connectomes with certain inputs highly overrepresented. Many visual neurons presynaptic to Kenyon cells have large receptive fields, while interneuron inputs receive spatially restricted signals that may be tuned to specific visual features. Individual visual Kenyon cells randomly sample sparse inputs from combinations of visual channels, including multiple optic lobe neuropils. These connectivity patterns suggest that visual coding in the mushroom body, like olfactory coding, is sparse, distributed, and combinatorial. However, the specific input repertoire to the smaller population of visual Kenyon cells suggests a constrained encoding of visual stimuli.

Abstract Brain evolution has primarily been studied at the macroscopic level by comparing the relative size of homologous brain centers between species. How neuronal circuits change at the cellular level over evolutionary time remains largely unanswered. Here, using a phylogenetically informed framework, we compare the olfactory circuits of three closely related Drosophila species that differ in their chemical ecology: the generalists Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans and Drosophila sechellia that specializes on ripe noni fruit. We examine a central part of the olfactory circuit that, to our knowledge, has not been investigated in these species—the connections between projection neurons and the Kenyon cells of the mushroom body—and identify species-specific connectivity patterns. We found that neurons encoding food odors connect more frequently with Kenyon cells, giving rise to species-specific biases in connectivity. These species-specific connectivity differences reflect two distinct neuronal phenotypes: in the number of projection neurons or in the number of presynaptic boutons formed by individual projection neurons. Finally, behavioral analyses suggest that such increased connectivity enhances learning performance in an associative task. Our study shows how fine-grained aspects of connectivity architecture in an associative brain center can change during evolution to reflect the chemical ecology of a species.

In a variety of species and behavioral contexts, learning and memory formation recruits two neural systems, with initial plasticity in one system being consolidated into the other over time. Moreover, consolidation is known to be selective; that is, some experiences are more likely to be consolidated into long-term memory than others. Here, we propose and analyze a model that captures common computational principles underlying such phenomena. The key component of this model is a mechanism by which a long-term learning and memory system prioritizes the storage of synaptic changes that are consistent with prior updates to the short-term system. This mechanism, which we refer to as recall-gated consolidation, has the effect of shielding long-term memory from spurious synaptic changes, enabling it to focus on reliable signals in the environment. We describe neural circuit implementations of this model for different types of learning problems, including supervised learning, reinforcement learning, and autoassociative memory storage. These implementations involve synaptic plasticity rules modulated by factors such as prediction accuracy, decision confidence, or familiarity. We then develop an analytical theory of the learning and memory performance of the model, in comparison to alternatives relying only on synapse-local consolidation mechanisms. We find that recall-gated consolidation provides significant advantages, substantially amplifying the signal-to-noise ratio with which memories can be stored in noisy environments. We show that recall-gated consolidation gives rise to a number of phenomena that are present in behavioral learning paradigms, including spaced learning effects, task-dependent rates of consolidation, and differing neural representations in short- and long-term pathways.

Summary: Thalamocortical loops have a central role in cognition and motor control, but precisely how they contribute to these processes is unclear. Recent studies showing evidence of plasticity in thalamocortical synapses indicate a role for the thalamus in shaping cortical dynamics through learning. Since signals undergo a compression from the cortex to the thalamus, we hypothesized that the computational role of the thalamus depends critically on the structure of corticothalamic connectivity. To test this, we identified the optimal corticothalamic structure that promotes biologically plausible learning in thalamocortical synapses. We found that corticothalamic projections specialized to communicate an efference copy of the cortical output benefit motor control, while communicating the modes of highest variance is optimal for working memory tasks. We analyzed neural recordings from mice performing grasping and delayed discrimination tasks and found corticothalamic communication consistent with these predictions. These results suggest that the thalamus orchestrates cortical dynamics in a functionally precise manner through structured connectivity.

Introduction The medical subinternship (also known as an acting internship) offers postclerkship medical students an opportunity for significant professional development. However, the skills required of a successful subintern—efficiency, patient triage, and advanced organization—are distinct from skills generally refined during the medicine clerkship. Few published curricula exist to prepare postclerkship students for success in this new role. To address this training gap, we introduced a novel tabletop role-playing game to equip medical subinterns with the necessary skills to deliver safe and efficient patient care. Methods We created an hour-long game-based learning session for rising internal medicine and family medicine subinterns. Led by a single facilitator, students worked together to triage and complete tasks in a gamified simulated environment of a morning on the wards. To assess the session, we surveyed participants (N = 130) immediately after activity completion. Results Eighty-three participants completed the postactivity survey, for a response rate of 64%. A majority of students agreed that TaskMaster: The Subintern Adventure Game met its educational goals of increasing comfort with task prioritization, organization, and patient triage. Ninety-three percent of respondents (77 of 83) either agreed or strongly agreed that they felt more prepared to be a covering provider for patients after the activity. Participants also reported high engagement with the activity. Discussion Leveraging the interactivity, teamwork, and contextualized practice of game-based learning can offer low-cost and adaptable opportunities to teach higher-order clinical skills and increase preparedness for the subinternship.

Background: Betel quid (BQ) consumption is prevalent globally, majorly consumed in South-Asia and South-East Asian countries. Among the other country studies done on BQ, the focus has been on its consumption prevalence, its physiological and psychological effects, and aids to discontinue this habit. Systematic literature research on suitability of different instruments (metric or scale) to measure BQ dependency is scarce, hence pointing to the need of more evidence-based studies in this domain. Aim: The aim of the article was to identify the instruments used in the published literature to measure BQ dependency among young and adult chewers and draw a comparison. Methodology: The electronic retrieval systems and databases PubMed (Medline), Cochrane Library, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched independently by two authors from January 2011 to September 2022 for the collection of desired data. Results: Among 1271 articles, 337 were duplicates and removed, 866 did not meet selection criteria. Out of 68 articles, 57 were excluded due to the lack of relevant data. Finally, only 11 articles were included for the analysis in this systematic review. Conclusion: Due to a scarcity of researches in this direction, no scale can be assigned as the best Dependence Scale, thus necessitating more such systematic reviews and meta-analysis for better comprehension and usage of present dependence scales.

The cerebellar granule cell layer has inspired numerous theoretical models of neural representations that support learned behaviors, beginning with the work of Marr and Albus. In these models, granule cells form a sparse, combinatorial encoding of diverse sensorimotor inputs. Such sparse representations are optimal for learning to discriminate random stimuli. However, recent observations of dense, low-dimensional activity across granule cells have called into question the role of sparse coding in these neurons. Here, we generalize theories of cerebellar learning to determine the optimal granule cell representation for tasks beyond random stimulus discrimination, including continuous input-output transformations as required for smooth motor control. We show that for such tasks, the optimal granule cell representation is substantially denser than predicted by classical theories. Our results provide a general theory of learning in cerebellum-like systems and suggest that optimal cerebellar representations are task-dependent.

Dopaminergic neurons with distinct projection patterns and physiological properties compose memory subsystems in a brain. However, it is poorly understood whether or how they interact during complex learning. Here, we identify a feedforward circuit formed between dopamine subsystems and show that it is essential for second-order conditioning, an ethologically important form of higher-order associative learning. The Drosophila mushroom body comprises a series of dopaminergic compartments, each of which exhibits distinct memory dynamics. We find that a slow and stable memory compartment can serve as an effective ‘teacher’ by instructing other faster and transient memory compartments via a single key interneuron, which we identify by connectome analysis and neurotransmitter prediction. This excitatory interneuron acquires enhanced response to reward-predicting odor after first-order conditioning and, upon activation, evokes dopamine release in the ‘student’ compartments. These hierarchical connections between dopamine subsystems explain distinct properties of first- and second-order memory long known by behavioral psychologists.

A conjoined twin of male gender, weighing 3 kgs was born at 36 weeks of gestation to a primigravida mother. The twin cried immediately after birth. The twin had a single trunk, three upper limbs, two lower limbs and two separate heads joined at the trunk , single anal opening and male external genitalia. Antenatal USG at 35 weeks showed polycephaly live intrauterine fetus with breech presentation with anteriorly placed placenta maturity grade II with gross fetal anomaly, polyhydramnios with distended fetal urinary bladder (bladder volume: 63ml). The twin had respiratory distress on admission, so oxygen support was given. Babygram done was suggestive of two separate vertebral columns from cervical to lumbosacral region. 2D echo shows 2 hearts. Twin was managed conservatively, started on NG feeds and discharged in stable condition.

Introduction: Inguinal hernia is a common surgical condition encountered of pediatric age group. Inguinal hernia may get incarcerated and if strangulated, it requires prompt intervention. Rarely incarcerated bowel can perforate leading to formation of entero-cutaneous fistula. Littre's hernia is the protrusion of a Meckel diverticulum through a potential abdominal opening. Presentation of case: A one and half months old infant presented with an irreducible right inguino-scrotal swelling and faecal discharge from the scrotum for a month. Patient was passing stools from normal anal opening as well. Patient underwent exploratory laparotomy which revealed an incarcerated right inguinal hernia containing long ruptured Meckel's diverticulum of size 8 cm passing from deep inguinal ring to right hemiscrotum. Diverticulectomy with ileo-ileal end to end anastomosis with right herniotomy was done. Discussion: The main complication of inguinal hernia is incarceration, which may result in bowel obstruction. Spontaneous intestinal-cutaneous fistula from incarcerated inguinal hernia with Meckel's diverticulum as content in neonates and infants is a rare occurrence and hitherto only one such case has been reported in the world literature. Conclusion: Prompt and early seeking of medical facility of patients with incarcerated inguinal hernias is necessary to reduce their morbidity and mortality.

The Drosophila mushroom body exhibits dopamine dependent synaptic plasticity that underlies the acquisition of associative memories. Recordings of dopamine neurons in this system have identified signals related to external reinforcement such as reward and punishment. However, other factors including locomotion, novelty, reward expectation, and internal state have also recently been shown to modulate dopamine neurons. This heterogeneity is at odds with typical modeling approaches in which these neurons are assumed to encode a global, scalar error signal. How is dopamine dependent plasticity coordinated in the presence of such heterogeneity? We develop a modeling approach that infers a pattern of dopamine activity sufficient to solve defined behavioral tasks, given architectural constraints informed by knowledge of mushroom body circuitry. Model dopamine neurons exhibit diverse tuning to task parameters while nonetheless producing coherent learned behaviors. Notably, reward prediction error emerges as a mode of population activity distributed across these neurons. Our results provide a mechanistic framework that accounts for the heterogeneity of dopamine activity during learning and behavior. Author summary Dopamine neurons across the animal kingdom are involved in the formation of associative memories. While numerous studies have recorded activity in these neurons related to external and predicted rewards, the diversity of these neurons’ activity and their tuning to non-reward-related quantities such as novelty, movement, and internal state have proved challenging to account for in traditional modeling approaches. Using a well-characterized model system for learning and memory, the mushroom body of Drosophila fruit flies, Jiang and Litwin-Kumar provide an account of the diversity of signals across dopamine neurons. They show that models optimized to solve tasks like those encountered by flies exhibit heterogeneous activity across dopamine neurons, but nonetheless this activity is sufficient for the system to solve the tasks. The models will be useful to generate testable hypotheses about dopamine neuron activity across different experimental conditions.

The Drosophila mushroom body exhibits dopamine dependent synaptic plasticity that underlies the acquisition of associative memories. Recordings of dopamine neurons in this system have identified signals related to external reinforcement such as reward and punishment. However, other factors including locomotion, novelty, reward expectation, and internal state have also recently been shown to modulate dopamine neurons. This heterogeneity is at odds with typical modeling approaches in which these neurons are assumed to encode a global, scalar error signal. How is dopamine dependent plasticity coordinated in the presence of such heterogeneity? We develop a modeling approach that infers a pattern of dopamine activity sufficient to solve defined behavioral tasks, given architectural constraints informed by knowledge of mushroom body circuitry. Model dopamine neurons exhibit diverse tuning to task parameters while nonetheless producing coherent learned behaviors. Notably, reward prediction error emerges as a mode of population activity distributed across these neurons. Our results provide a mechanistic framework that accounts for the heterogeneity of dopamine activity during learning and behavior.

The mechanisms specifying neuronal diversity are well characterized, yet it remains unclear how or if these mechanisms regulate neural circuit assembly. To address this, we mapped the developmental origin of 160 interneurons from seven bilateral neural progenitors (neuroblasts) and identify them in a synapse-scale TEM reconstruction of the Drosophila larval central nervous system. We find that lineages concurrently build the sensory and motor neuropils by generating sensory and motor hemilineages in a Notch-dependent manner. Neurons in a hemilineage share common synaptic targeting within the neuropil, which is further refined based on neuronal temporal identity. Connectome analysis shows that hemilineage-temporal cohorts share common connectivity. Finally, we show that proximity alone cannot explain the observed connectivity structure, suggesting hemilineage/temporal identity confers an added layer of specificity. Thus, we demonstrate that the mechanisms specifying neuronal diversity also govern circuit formation and function, and that these principles are broadly applicable throughout the nervous system.

Despite the development of effective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, epidemiological control of the virus is still challenging due to slow vaccine rollouts, incomplete vaccine protection to current and emerging variants, and unwillingness to get vaccinated. Therefore, frequent testing of individuals to identify early SARS-CoV-2 infections, contact-tracing and isolation strategies remain crucial to mitigate viral spread. Here, we describe WHotLAMP, a rapid molecular test to detect SARS-CoV-2 in saliva. WHotLAMP is simple to use, highly sensitive (~4 viral particles per microliter of saliva) and specific, as well as inexpensive, making it ideal for frequent screening. Moreover, WHotLAMP does not require toxic chemicals or specialized equipment and thus can be performed in point-of-care settings, and may also be adapted for resource-limited environments or home use. While applied here to SARS-CoV-2, WHotLAMP can be modified to detect other pathogens, making it adaptable for other diagnostic assays, including for use in future outbreaks.

Making inferences about the computations performed by neuronal circuits from synapse-level connectivity maps is an emerging opportunity in neuroscience. The mushroom body (MB) is well positioned for developing and testing such an approach due to its conserved neuronal architecture, recently completed dense connectome, and extensive prior experimental studies of its roles in learning, memory, and activity regulation. Here, we identify new components of the MB circuit in Drosophila, including extensive visual input and MB output neurons (MBONs) with direct connections to descending neurons. We find unexpected structure in sensory inputs, in the transfer of information about different sensory modalities to MBONs, and in the modulation of that transfer by dopaminergic neurons (DANs). We provide insights into the circuitry used to integrate MB outputs, connectivity between the MB and the central complex and inputs to DANs, including feedback from MBONs. Our results provide a foundation for further theoretical and experimental work.

Road dust (RD) is one of the most important sources of particles in the atmosphere, especially in industrial areas and cities. In this special issue, we collected 16 original articles that describe field, experimental, and modeling studies related to RD and its various size fractions as a key issue in understanding the relationships between several urban and industrial environments and in the identification of pollution sources. Articles in the special issue focus primarily on the following main topics: (1) study of the chemical composition and speciation of RD and its source attribution; (2) assessment of RD and aerosol pollution levels (including express technique), environmental hazards and public health risks; (3) distribution of stable and radioactive isotopes in RD; (4) determination of factors affecting the level of dust accumulation on roads and the intensity of its pollution; and (5) study of the effect of RD on the atmosphere and other environments. Based on the results presented in this special issue, but not limited to, some of the current challenges in studying RD are formulated, including the need for further geographically wider and analytically deeper work on various aspects of the formation, transport pathways, and accumulation of RD in urban, industrial and other areas.

Animals generate diverse motor behaviors, yet how the same motor neurons (MNs) generate two distinct or antagonistic behaviors remains an open question. Here, we characterize Drosophila larval muscle activity patterns and premotor/motor circuits to understand how they generate forward and backward locomotion. We show that all body wall MNs are activated during both behaviors, but a subset of MNs change recruitment timing for each behavior. We used TEM to reconstruct a full segment of all 60 MNs and 236 premotor neurons (PMNs), including differentially-recruited MNs. Analysis of this comprehensive connectome identified PMN-MN ‘labeled line’ connectivity; PMN-MN combinatorial connectivity; asymmetric neuronal morphology; and PMN-MN circuit motifs that could all contribute to generating distinct behaviors. We generated a recurrent network model that reproduced the observed behaviors, and used functional optogenetics to validate selected model predictions. This PMN-MN connectome will provide a foundation for analyzing the full suite of larval behaviors.

Animals employ diverse learning rules and synaptic plasticity dynamics to record temporal and statistical information about the world. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this diversity are poorly understood. The anatomically defined compartments of the insect mushroom body function as parallel units of associative learning, with different learning rates, memory decay dynamics and flexibility (Aso and Rubin, 2016). Here, we show that nitric oxide (NO) acts as a neurotransmitter in a subset of dopaminergic neurons in Drosophila. NO’s effects develop more slowly than those of dopamine and depend on soluble guanylate cyclase in postsynaptic Kenyon cells. NO acts antagonistically to dopamine; it shortens memory retention and facilitates the rapid updating of memories. The interplay of NO and dopamine enables memories stored in local domains along Kenyon cell axons to be specialized for predicting the value of odors based only on recent events. Our results provide key mechanistic insights into how diverse memory dynamics are established in parallel memory systems.

Osteochondroma is defined as an osteocartilagenous exostosis with cartilage capped exophytic lesion that arises from the bone cortex. It is a slow growing benign tumor that is rarely seen in the maxillofacial region. Osteochondroma of the mandibular condyle is a relatively rare condition that causes a progressive enlargement of the condyle, usually resulting in facial asymmetry, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunction and malocclusion. Radiographically, there is a unilaterally enlarged condyle usually with an exophytic growth of the tumor from the condylar head. The treatment of osteochondroma is primarily surgical resection of the tumor. This paper reports a case of osteochondroma of the right mandibular condyle presenting as a painless restricted mouth opening.

Central giant cell granuloma (CGCG) is an uncommon, benign, and proliferative lesion of the jaw with an unknown etiology. It is considered widely to be a nonneoplastic lesion. The actual etiology of CGCG is still unclear, although inflammation, hemorrhage, and local trauma have all been suggested. The incidence in the general population is very low, and patients are generally younger than 30 years. The biologic behavior of CGCG of the jaw ranges from quiescent to aggressive with destructive expansion. Here, we report a case of CGCG in an 18-year-old female patient with review of literature.

Orofacial granulomatosis (OFG) is a rare disease, usually presenting as a persistent swelling of the soft tissues in the orofacial region, predominantly lips (cheilitis granulomatosa). The treatment of OFG can be challenging as frequent recurrences are very common. Here, we present a case of an Asian female patient with persistent swelling of the upper lip from the past 6 months. After establishing the diagnosis, intralesional triamcinolone injection (10 mg on a weekly schedule) was planned for a period of 6 weeks. Complete resolution of the lesion was observed. This article presents a unique case of cheilitis granulomatosa (CG) with a brief highlight on the various treatment modalities and a structured algorithm discussing the various differential diagnoses, aiding in formulating an accurate diagnosis and effective treatment.

The present work deals with the development of controlled release tablets of salbutamol sulphate (SS) using graft copolymers of methyl methacrylate (St-g-PMMA and Ast-g-PMMA) on starch and acetylated starch. Formulations were evaluated for physical characteristics like hardness, friability, drug release, drug content and weight variations, which fulfilled all the official requirements of tablet dosage form. The release rates from formulated matrix tablets were studied at SGF (pH 1.2) followed by SIF (pH 6.8). Drug release from the graft copolymer based tablets was found to be sustained upto the 14 h with >75% drug release. The in-vitro release study showed that the graft copolymer based matrix formulations (F3 & F4) exhibited highest correlation value (r2) for higuchi kinetic model and Korsmeyer's model with n values between 0.61 and 0.67 proved that release mechanisms were governed by both diffusion and erosion mechanism. There was no significant difference in the pharmacokinetic parameters (tmax, Cmax, AUC, Ke, and t1/2) of the graft copolymers matrices and HPMC K100M matrix tablets, indicating their comparable sustained release effect. The potential of graft copolymers to sustain the drug release is well supported by in-vivo pharmacokinetic studies and their adequate physicochemical properties make them promising excipients for controlled drug delivery system.

Keratocystic odontogenic tumor (KCOT) has been identified as a "tumor" after observation of its biological behavior and genetic abnormalities consistent with neoplastic progression. In 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) working group considered odontogenic keratocyst (OKC) to be a tumor and recommended the term KCOT, distinguishing the lesion from the orthokeratinizing variant, which is now considered an OKC or orthokeratinized odontogenic cyst. Very rarely, KCOTs can transform into more aggressive lesions such as ameloblastoma and primary intraosseous carcinoma (PIOSCC). In this paper, we present a case of KCOT involving the angle and ramus of the mandible, with histopathologic evidence of ameloblastomatous changes. We also discuss about the evolution of this lesion from a cyst to a tumor along with the latest updates of the entity.

Hemifacial hyperplasia is a rare condition causing unilateral enlargement of all tissues. We report a case of progressive facial asymmetry caused by congenital infiltrating lipomatosis of the face in a 6-year-old boy. The approach to diagnosis in our case is discussed along with a review of cases reported in the literature.

Fibrous tissue proliferations express a wide spectrum of histologic and morphologic variations in both infants and adults. This ranges from hypertrophic scar formation at one end to malignant fibrosarcoma at the other end of the spectrum. Aggressive fibromatosis is an intermediate tumour which is in proximity to fibro sarcomas. These are locally invasive and often recur after excision, but do not metastasize. Histologically, they are characterized by proliferating fibroblasts with little mitotic activity. Aggressive fibromatosis in the head and neck region is not common, and very sporadically occurs in the oral cavity or jaw bones. Here we report a rare case of aggressive fibromatosis occurring in a 5 year old boy.

Psychoneuroimmunology characterizes a disease entity that combines psychological components, central nervous system regulation, and immunology, to explain the etiological complexity of a disease. Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) include a heterogeneous group of painful conditions that involve the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), muscles of mastication, and the adjacent anatomic structures. This review focuses on the psychoneuroimmunological diseases and disorders that mimic the symptoms of TMDs. The differentiation of these disorders is of great significance to the oral physician - differentiating and diagnosing the cause of TMJ pain and treating it effectively to benefit the patient.The literature for this review was taken from Medline/PubMed, other indexed journals, standard text books, and online material.

Bronchoscopy in this modern era has proved its utility and superiority far beyond imagination and has surpassed and replaced the majority of the surgical procedures. However, there have been certain limitations to the applicability of this vital technique especially in a country where we face lack of proper equipments and trained personnel at all health centers. This case series with review of literature examines the spectrum of limitations of bronchoscopy and the rare cases encountered, which leads to the surgical alternatives for managing intrabronchial pathology based on relevant current literature.

Many studies use population analysis approaches, such as dimensionality reduction, to characterize the activity of large groups of neurons. To date, these methods have treated each neuron equally, without taking into account whether neurons are excitatory or inhibitory. We studied population activity structure as a function of neuron type by applying factor analysis to spontaneous activity from spiking networks with balanced excitation and inhibition. Throughout the study, we characterized population activity structure by measuring its dimensionality and the percentage of overall activity variance that is shared among neurons. First, by sampling only excitatory or only inhibitory neurons, we found that the activity structures of these two populations in balanced networks are measurably different. We also found that the population activity structure is dependent on the ratio of excitatory to inhibitory neurons sampled. Finally we classified neurons from extracellular recordings in the primary visual cortex of anesthetized macaques as putative excitatory or inhibitory using waveform classification, and found similarities with the neuron type-specific population activity structure of a balanced network with excitatory clustering. These results imply that knowledge of neuron type is important, and allows for stronger statistical tests, when interpreting population activity structure.

Recent studies have applied dimensionality reduction methods to understand how the multi-dimensional structure of neural population activity gives rise to brain function. It is unclear, however, how the results obtained from dimensionality reduction generalize to recordings with larger numbers of neurons and trials or how these results relate to the underlying network structure. We address these questions by applying factor analysis to recordings in the visual cortex of non-human primates and to spiking network models that self-generate irregular activity through a balance of excitation and inhibition. We compared the scaling trends of two key outputs of dimensionality reduction-shared dimensionality and percent shared variance-with neuron and trial count. We found that the scaling properties of networks with non-clustered and clustered connectivity differed, and that the in vivo recordings were more consistent with the clustered network. Furthermore, recordings from tens of neurons were sufficient to identify the dominant modes of shared variability that generalize to larger portions of the network. These findings can help guide the interpretation of dimensionality reduction outputs in regimes of limited neuron and trial sampling and help relate these outputs to the underlying network structure.

Pindborg tumor, the eponymous counterpart of calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumor (CEOT), is a rare benign odontogenic neoplasm that was first described by a Dutch pathologist Jens Jorgen Pindborg in 1955 and accounts for approximately 1% of all odontogenic tumors. Its origin as well as its malignant potential is controversial. This neoplasm is possibly of stratum intermedium origin and occurring predominantly in the mandible of adults. We hereby report a case of Pindborg tumor arising in the premaxilla which is seldom (9 out of 200 cases) documented in the scientific literature.

Aim: To assess the various epidemiological parameters that influence the causation of trauma as well as the consequent morbidity and mortality in the pediatric age group. Materials and Methods: A prospective study of 791 patients of less than 12 years age, was carried out over a period of 1 year (August 2009 to July 2010), and pediatric trauma trends, with regards to the following parameters were assessed: Age group, sex, mode of trauma, type of injury, place where the trauma occurred and the overall mortality as well as mortality. Results: Overall trauma was most common in the school-going age group (6-12 years), with male children outnumbering females in the ratio of 1.9:1. It was observed that orthopedic injuries were the most frequent (37.8%) type of injuries, whereas fall from height (39.4%), road traffic accident (27.8%) and burns (15.2%) were the next most common modes of trauma. Home was found out to be the place where maximum trauma occurred (51.8%). Maximum injuries happened unintentionally (98.4%). Overall mortality was found out to be 6.4% (n = 51). Conclusions: By knowing the epidemiology of pediatric trauma, we conclude that majority of pediatric injuries are preventable and pediatric epidemiological trends differ from those in adults. Therefore, preventive strategies should be made in pediatric patients on the basis of these epidemiological trends.

Objective: This study was carried out to determine the reliability of sex determination from teeth pulp tissue. Patients and methods: This study was carried on 60 maxillary and mandibular premolars and permanent molars (30 male teeth and 30 female teeth) which were indicated for extraction. The teeth were categorized into three groups of 20 each (10 from males and 10 from females).Group 1-pulp tissue from teeth examined immediately after extraction. Group 2- and Group 3-pulp tissue examined from teeth one and five month after extraction, respectively. Teeth was sectioned and pulpal cells were stained with quinacrine dihydrochloride. The cells were observed with fluorescent microscope for fluorescent body. Gender was determined by identification of Y chromosome fluorescence in dental pulp. Results: Freshly extracted teeth and for those examined one month later, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and efficiency were all 100%. Conclusion: The fluorescent Y body test is shown to be a reliable, simple, and cost-effective technique for gender identification in the immediate postmortem period up to one month.

The synaptic connectivity of cortical networks features an overrepresentation of certain wiring motifs compared to simple random-network models. This structure is shaped, in part, by synaptic plasticity that promotes or suppresses connections between neurons depending on their joint spiking activity. Frequently, theoretical studies focus on how feedforward inputs drive plasticity to create this network structure. We study the complementary scenario of self-organized structure in a recurrent network, with spike timing-dependent plasticity driven by spontaneous dynamics. We develop a self-consistent theory for the evolution of network structure by combining fast spiking covariance with a slow evolution of synaptic weights. Through a finite-size expansion of network dynamics we obtain a low-dimensional set of nonlinear differential equations for the evolution of two-synapse connectivity motifs. With this theory in hand, we explore how the form of the plasticity rule drives the evolution of microcircuits in cortical networks. When potentiation and depression are in approximate balance, synaptic dynamics depend on weighted divergent, convergent, and chain motifs. For additive, Hebbian STDP these motif interactions create instabilities in synaptic dynamics that either promote or suppress the initial network structure. Our work provides a consistent theoretical framework for studying how spiking activity in recurrent networks interacts with synaptic plasticity to determine network structure.

Throughout the central nervous system, the timescale over which pairs of neural spike trains are correlated is shaped by stimulus structure and behavioral context. Such shaping is thought to underlie important changes in the neural code, but the neural circuitry responsible is largely unknown. In this study, we investigate a stimulus-induced shaping of pairwise spike train correlations in the electrosensory system of weakly electric fish. Simultaneous single unit recordings of principal electrosensory cells show that an increase in the spatial extent of stimuli increases correlations at short (≈ 10 ms) timescales while simultaneously reducing correlations at long (≈ 100 ms) timescales. A spiking network model of the first two stages of electrosensory processing replicates this correlation shaping, under the assumptions that spatially broad stimuli both saturate feedforward afferent input and recruit an open-loop inhibitory feedback pathway. Our model predictions are experimentally verified using both the natural heterogeneity of the electrosensory system and pharmacological blockade of descending feedback projections. For weak stimuli, linear response analysis of the spiking network shows that the reduction of long timescale correlation for spatially broad stimuli is similar to correlation cancellation mechanisms previously suggested to be operative in mammalian cortex. The mechanism for correlation shaping supports population-level filtering of irrelevant distractor stimuli, thereby enhancing the population response to relevant prey and conspecific communication inputs.