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Cultural and social phenomena in our society have deep roots in the past. In other words, at least in part, thesocial behavior of current societies has its roots in their past, institutionalized in the subconscious memory of thecitizens for hundreds or thousands of years. The cognition of social behavior of past societies and their structurescould lead to a deeper and better understanding of contemporary social behavior. One of the most important waysin reconstructing social behavior of people in the past is the study of architectural and urban spaces. ConsideringIranian cities with historical heritage, the historical texture of the city of Yazd is well preserved. The reconstructionof the social structure of Yazd (emphasizing social communication) according to the remaining spaces from thepast, with the use of space syntax, will be discussed in this paper. It seems that compact neighborhood, andsome public spaces such as neighborhood mosques could have increased social interaction among neighborhoodresidents. Increasing the level of social communication, can not only increase the cohesion and solidarity betweenthe residents, but also lead to the creation of a kind of informal social control. However, some other architecturalspaces left by them, and some principles of Islamic religion like privacy, indicate the emergence of a different typeof social behavior like pretention and dual character among residents.

The paper considers the issues related to slavery in the Central Balkans in the proto-historic i.e. Late Iron Age period. It is conceived as a first step towards more profound future study, and deals with the history of research and theoretical-methodological approaches to the problem of slavery among the Late Iron Age communities. The text revisits earlier interpretations of slavery derived from ancient written accounts and archaeological evidence, and then offers insights that rely on recent research of slavery in general, and in prehistoric period in particular. Finally, it is argued that it is necessary to consider the possibility of ‘societies with slaves’ when researching the Central Balkan Iron Age communities, even though they are often regarded as ‘small-scale societies’ that profoundly differed from the Mediterranean ‘slave societies’.

Women’s position in historical periods and their participation in political and administrative affairs of government are considered as one of the main issues in development of societies. Women participation in societies is considered as a proper index to measure the rate of intellectual growth of the people of a society. This document examines the position of women in Iranian civilizations and Mesopotamia in the given historical periods (achaemenid and Assyrian). Among the most important archaeological evidence, monuments and relics of historical eras, we considered the role of women in political arena. The aim of this paper is to examine the position of women of the achaemenid era and compare it with Assyrian civilization and provide clear image of their performance based on existing documentation. This study is kind of a historical research with descriptive - analytical approach and adaptation of archaeological evidence ranging from Seals and Rock paintings to analyze the status of woman in the civilizations of Iran and Mesopotamia in the given historical periods using archaeological evidence. We have concluded that despite the th influences of Assyrian images on the achaemenid ones, we can say that indicators including respect for women, women participation in political and economic activities, and women autonomy and individual freedoms in private life in achaemenid women is higher than those indicators in the Assyrian period.

Due to shortage of contemporary written sources and archaeological evidence, our knowledge about different parts of the Median society is very incomplete and fragmentary; therefore, a detailed assessment of some related issues such as conditions of women in this period is difficult and sometimes risky. The results of this research, based on the same historical sources and archaeological evidence, show that Median society, like other contemporary societies, was a Patriarchal society in which father was the head of the household and other members including lady of the house were his followers. In traditional Median society, men’s and women’s jobs were defined and both genders had their own tasks based on their physical and mental capabilities and abilities. In addition, it seems that women played a role in making decisions within the family, strengthening its foundations, protecting family’s traditions and dynamics of the family and median’s society economy.

La comunidad cristiana de Mérida tras la presencia islámica del 713 d.C./94 H. permanecerá ajena en un principio a las luchas intestinas que se desarrollan en al-Andalus hasta la proclamación del emirato con ‛Abd al-Raḥmān I. Será al finalizar el siglo VIII e inicios del IX, cuando la Iglesia de Mārida participe activamente en los sucesos que se desarrollan en la ciudad en su lucha contra el poder cordobés, que terminará con la extinción de la sede emeritense en los albores de la décima centuria. Después de un minucioso estudio de los textos se puede afirmar que no hubo traslado de sede a Badajoz en el siglo X, como cierta historiografía ha mantenido, confirmándose que fue una manipulación tardía (s. XIII) para servir a los intereses de la monarquía y de la iglesia. El trabajo arqueológico desarrollado en los últimos años en la ciudad y en el medio rural ha venido a confirmar lo recogido en los textos escritos.After the Islamic conquest in 713 A.D./94 Hegira, the Christian community in Merida remained unscathed by infighting that took place in al-Andalus until the proclamation of the Emirate by ‛Abd al-Raḥmān I. Only at the end of the eighth and early ninth centuries will the Church of Mārida actively participate in the fighting that took place in the city against the authorities in Cordova, ending with the extinction of the Meridan See at the beginning of the tenth century. After a detailed study of the texts, we can conclude there was no transfer of the See to Badajoz in the tenth century, as some historians have maintained, confirming that it was a late documentary manipulation (from the thirteenth century) that took place to serve the interests of the monarchy and of the Church. Archaeological work in recent years in the city and in the surrounding rural areas has also corroborated what the written sources contain.

This paper deals with the origin of salt production and discusses different approaches ranging from technology, ethnoarchaeology and paleoenvironmental studies to chemical analyses. Starting from the current research on the Neolithic exploitation of salt in Europe, we examine the types and nature of the salt resources (sea water, salt springs, soil or rock), the diversity of archaeological evidence of forms of salt working. We also scrutinize the types of production for these early forms of salt exploitation, with or without the use of crudely fired clay vessels (briquetage). Finally, we contextualise the socio-economic dimensions and highlight both the diversity of salt products and their characteristics, which go well beyond dietary roles.

Los humanos modernos han ocupado progresivamente diferentes regiones del mundo durante los últimos 80.000 años. América fue el último continente al que llegaron durante su expansión. En este trabajo se revisará y discutirá el conocimiento de la dispersión, divergencia y diversificación de las poblaciones americanas empleando evidencia molecular, arqueológica y morfométrica. La primera muestra una divergencia a partir de grupos del Centro de Asia 15.000 años atrás y posteriormente un efecto fundador serial durante la dispersión de las poblaciones en América. Asimismo, los estudios morfométricos sugieren que estas poblaciones se diversificaron fenotípicamente en relación a variables ecológicas como la dieta durante el Holoceno. Futuras investigaciones requerirán el empleo de marcadores moleculares nucleares, muestras con una mayor antigüedad, una discusión sobre las causas de la variación morfométrica y molecular, y el análisis de la importancia de la variación ecológica. Estas investigaciones permitirán tener un panorama más rico acerca de la diversificación de los aborígenes americanos.Os seres humanos modernos ocuparam diferentes regiões no mundo nos últimos 80.000 anos. América foi o último continente aonde chegaram durante esse processo de dispersão. Neste trabalho, vou revisar e discutir o conhecimento atual sobre a dispersão, divergência e diversificação das populações americanas usando evidências moleculares, arqueológicas e morfométricas. As evidências moleculares apoiam uma divergência dos grupos americanos a partir das populações da Ásia Central já a 15.000 anos atrás, e um efeito fundador serial durante a dispersão humana na América. Além disso, os estudos morfométricos sugerem que as variáveis ambientais, tais como - por exemplo - a dieta, tiveram um papel importante na diversificação fenotípica entre estas populações durante o Holoceno tardio. No entanto, novos estudos utilizando marcadores moleculares nucleares e mais amostras esqueléticas são necessários, assim como também tomar em consideração as causas da variação molecular e morfométrica e a importância das variáveis ecológicas. Essas investigações vão proporcionar um quadro mais rico sobre a diversidade dos nativos americanos.Modern humans have occupied different regions of the world for the past 80,000 years. America was the last continent to which they arrived during this process of expansion. This paper reviews and discusses current knowledge regarding the dispersion, divergence and diversification of American populations using molecular, archaeological and morphometric evidence. Molecular evidence supports a divergence from Central Asia ca. 15,000 years ago and a serial founder effect during human dispersion into America. In addition, morphometric studies suggest that environmental variables such as diet played an important role on the phenotypic diversification among these populations during the Holocene. However, further investigations will require the use of nuclear molecular markers, older skeletal samples, as well as discussing the causes of molecular and morphometric variation and the importance of ecological variation. These investigations will enable a more complex picture of the diversification of Native Americans.

جاءت تلك الدراسة في المحاور التالية : (1) "بوتو" التعريف والنشأة والحضارة : (مقدمة - التعريف بمدينة "به" - موقع ""بوتو"" - نشأة مدينة "به" من خلال الشواهد الأثرية - "بوتو" من الناحية الحضارية) (2) أرواح به ودورها في الفكر العقيدي : ( " به " و نشأة الفكر العقيدي - أول ظهور لأرواح "به" - أرواح "به" ، نخن ، وهليوبوليس - علاقة أرواح "به" بأتباع حورس - الموطن الأصلي لـ"حور" في الجنوب أم الشمال ؟؟ ) (3) حول علاقة "به" بالمدن المقدسة الأخري : ("بوتو" وإيونو وعلاقاتهما من خلال رحلات الزيارة الدينية ) خاتمة ونتائج : ( وتشتمل علي أهم ما توصلت اليه الدراسة من آراء من خلال الدراسة الحضارية التحليلية) قائمة المراجع : (وتشتمل علي المراجع العربية والمعربة فالأجنبية التي اعتمدت عليها تلك الدراسة)

There are many cultural practices that connect ancient Egyptians to the Yorubas and the new interpretation of the Oduduwa legend suggests that the Yorubas have originated or are influenced mainly by the Egyptians. The attestation of Egypt as the main influencer of the Yoruba culture made Egypt significant in the study of the history of the Yoruba people. Some writers are beginning to think that the ancient Egyptians were responsible for introducing and spreading many cultures amongst the Yorubas. As more Yorubas are tracing their origins and the origins of their culture to ancient Egypt, this research investigates whether the Egyptians were the originators and the main spreaders of the afterlife culture in Yorubaland.