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Contact electrification (CE) in water has attracted much attention, owing to its potential impacts on the chemical reactions, such as the recent discovery of spontaneous generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in water microdroplets. However, current studies focus on the CE of bulk water, the measurement of CE between micrometer-size water droplets is a challenge and its mechanism still remains ambiguous. Here, a method for quantifying the amount of charge carried by the water microdroplets produced by ultrasonic atomization is proposed. In the method, the motions of water microdroplets in a uniform electric field are observed and the electrostatic forces on the microdroplets are calculated based on the moving speed of the microdroplets. It is revealed that the charge transfer between water microdroplets is size-dependent. The large microdroplets tend to be positively charged while the small microdroplets tend to receive negative charges, implying that the negative charges transfer from large microdroplets to the small microdroplets during ultrasonic atomization. Further, a theoretical model for microdroplets charging is proposed, in which the curvature-induced surface potential/energy difference is suggested to be responsible for the charge transfer between microdroplets. The findings show that the electric field strength between two microdroplets with opposite charges during separation is strong enough to convert OH- to OH*, providing evidence for the CE-induced spontaneous generation of H2O2 in water microdroplets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigating coherent acoustic vibrations in nanostructured materials provides fundamental insights into optomechanical responses and microscopic energy flow. Extensive measurements of vibrational dynamics have been performed for a wide variety of nanoparticles and nanoparticle assemblies. However, virtually all of them show that only the dilation modes are launched after laser excitations, and the acoustic bending and torsional motions, which are commonly observed in photoexcited chemical bonds, are absent. Unambiguous identification and refined characterization of these "missing" modes have been a long-standing issue. In this report, we investigated the acoustic vibrational dynamics of individual Au nanoprisms on free-standing graphene substrates using an ultrafast high-sensitivity dark-field imaging approach in four-dimensional transmission electron microscopy. Following optical excitations, we observed low-frequency multiple-mode oscillations and higher superposition amplitudes at nanoprism corners and edges on the subnanoparticle level. In combination with finite-element simulations, we determined that these vibrational modes correspond to out-of-plane bending and torsional motions, superimposed by an overall tilting effect of the nanoprisms. The launch and relaxation processes of these modes are highly pertinent to substrate effects and nanoparticle geometries. These findings contribute to the fundamental understanding about acoustic dynamics of individual nanostructures and their interaction with substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By seamlessly integrating the wearing comfortability of textiles with the biomechanical energy harvesting function of a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), an emerging and advanced intelligent textile, i.e., smart textile TENG, is developed with remarkable abilities of autonomous power supply and self-powered sensing, which has great development prospects in the next-generation human-oriented wearable electronics. However, due to inadequate interface contact, insufficient electrification of materials, unavoidable air breakdown effect, output capacitance feature, and special textile structure, there are still several bottlenecks in the road towards the practical application of textile TENGs, including low output, high impedance, low integration, poor working durability, and so on. In this review, on the basis of mastering the existing theory of electricity generation mechanism of TENGs, some prospective strategies for improving the mechanical-to-electrical conversion performance of textile TENGs are systematically summarized and comprehensively discussed, including surface/interface physical treatments, atomic-scale chemical modification, structural optimization design, work environmental control, and integrated energy management. The advantages and disadvantages of each approach in output enhancement are further compared at the end of this review. It is hoped that this review can not only provide useful guidance for the research of textile TENGs to select optimization methods but also accelerate their large-scale practical process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ceria (CeO2) based ceramics have been widely used for many applications due to their unique ionic, electronic, and catalytic properties. Here, we report our findings in investigating into the redox processes of undoped and Sm-doped CeO2 ceramics stimulated by high-energy electron beam irradiation within a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The reduced structure with oxygen vacancy ordering has been identified as the CeO1.68 (C-Ce2O3+d) phase via high-resolution TEM. The reduction of Ce4+ to Ce3+ has been monitored by electron energy-loss spectroscopy. The decreased electronic conductivity of the Sm-doped CeO2 (Sm0.2Ce0.8O1.9, SDC) is revealed by electron holography, as positive electrostatic charges accumulated at the surfaces of SDC grains under electron beam irradiation, but not at CeO2 grains. The formation of the reduced CeO1.68 domains corresponds to lattice expansion compared to the CeO2 matrix. Therefore, the growth of CeO1.68 nuclei builds up strain inside the matrix, causing annihilation of dislocations inside the grains. By using in-situ high-resolution TEM and a fast OneView camera recording system, we investigated dislocation motion inside both CeO2 and SDC grains under electron beam irradiation. The dislocations prefer to dissociate into Shockley partials bounded by stacking faults. Then, the partials can easily glide in the {111} planes to reach the grain surfaces. Even the Lomer-Cottrell lock can be swept away by the phase change induced strain field. Our results revealed the high mobility of dislocations inside CeO2 and SDC grains during their respective redox processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The piezo-phototronic effect (a coupling effect of piezoelectric, photoexcitation and semiconducting properties, coined in 2010) has been demonstrated to be an ingenious and robust strategy to manipulate optoelectronic processes by tuning the energy band structure and photoinduced carrier behavior. The piezo-phototronic effect exhibits great potential in improving the quantum yield efficiencies of optoelectronic materials and devices and thus could help increase the energy conversion efficiency, thus alleviating the energy shortage crisis. In this review, the fundamental principles and challenges of representative optoelectronic materials and devices are presented, including photocatalysts (converting solar energy into chemical energy), solar cells (generating electricity directly under light illumination), photodetectors (converting light into electrical signals) and light-emitting diodes (LEDs, converting electric current into emitted light signals). Importantly, the mechanisms of how the piezo-phototronic effect controls the optoelectronic processes and the recent progress and applications in the above-mentioned materials and devices are highlighted and summarized. Only photocatalysts, solar cells, photodetectors, and LEDs that display piezo-phototronic behavior are reviewed. Material and structural design, property characterization, theoretical simulation calculations, and mechanism analysis are then examined as strategies to further enhance the quantum yield efficiency of optoelectronic devices via the piezo-phototronic effect. This comprehensive overview will guide future fundamental and applied studies that capitalize on the piezo-phototronic effect for energy conversion and storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using in situ transmission electron microscopy, we investigated the dynamic reconstruction and evolution of ZnO polar and non-polar surfaces under high-energy electron beam irradiation. Electron beam radiolysis creates oxygen vacancies and a Zn rich (0001) surface. Positive polar charges at the (0001) surface expel loosely bonded Zn ions to diffuse away from the (0001) polar surface. As a result, mass loss was observed around the (0001) surface. Dehydration by the electron beam breaks the charge balance on the (000̅1) polar surface. The negative charges on the (000̅1) surface suppress the radiolysis effect and further absorb Zn ions to the surface to neutral the polar charges. The ideal stacking sequences of Zn ions in hexagonal ZnO structure can be considered as ABAB... along its c axis, while the absorbed individual Zn ion on the (000̅1) surface occupies the C site to form three bonds with surface O ions beneath, instead of one bond in the ideal structure. With more Zn ion absorption and surface oxidization, new nanocrystals grow up from the (000̅1) polar surface. New nanocrystals nucleated at the (01̅10) non-polar surface are driven by the electric field of the polar charges as well, for the Zn ions were always observed to absorb on the negatively charged [000̅1] end of the newly formed (01̅10) surface layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using in situ transmission electron microscopy, we investigated the dynamic reconstruction and evolution of ZnO polar and non-polar surfaces under high-energy electron beam irradiation. Electron beam radiolysis creates oxygen vacancies and a Zn rich (0001) surface. Positive polar charges at the (0001) surface expel loosely bonded Zn ions to diffuse away from the (0001) polar surface. As a result, mass loss was observed around the (0001) surface. Dehydration by the electron beam breaks the charge balance on the (0001 ) polar surface. The negative charges on the (0001) surface suppress the radiolysis effect and further absorb Zn ions to the surface to neutral the polar charges. The ideal stacking sequences of Zn ions in hexagonal ZnO structure can be considered as ABAB... along its c axis, while the absorbed individual Zn ion on the (0001 ) surface occupies the C site to form three bonds with surface O ions beneath, instead of one bond in the ideal structure. With more Zn ion absorption and surface oxidization, new nanocrystals grow up from the (0001) polar surface. New nanocrystals nucleated at the (011 0) non-polar surface are driven by the electric field of the polar charges as well, for the Zn ions were always observed to absorb on the negatively charged [0001] end of the newly formed (0110) surface layer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When ZnO nanobelts are exposed to a high-dose electron probe of several nanometers to hundred nanometers in diameter inside a transmission electron microscope, due to the radiolysis effect, part of oxygen atoms will be ejected into the vacuum and leaving a Zn-ion rich surface with a pit appearance at both the electron-entrance and electron-exit surfaces. At the same time, a temperature distribution is created around the electron probe due to local beam heating effect, which generates a unidirectional pyroelectric field. This pyroelectric field is strong enough to drive Zn ions moving along its positive c-axis direction as interstitial ions. In the first case, for the ZnO nanobelts with c-axis lie in their large surfaces, defects due to the aggregation of Zn interstitial ions will be formed at some distances of 30-50 nm approximately along the c-axis direction from the electron beam illuminated area. Alternatively, for the ZnO nanobelts with ±(0001) planes as their large surfaces, the incident electron beam is along its c-axis and the generated pyroelectric field will drive the interstitial Zn-ions to aggregate at the Zn terminated (0001) surface where the local electrical potential is the lowest. Such electron beam induced damage in ZnO nanostructures is suggested as a result of Zn ion diffusion driven by the temperature gradient induced pyroelectric field along c-axis. Our study shows a radiation damage caused by electron beam in transmission electron microscopy, especially when the electron energy is high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low power electronics endowed with artificial intelligence and biological afferent characters are beneficial to neuromorphic sensory network. Highly distributed synaptic sensory neurons are more readily driven by portable, distributed, and ubiquitous power sources. Here, we report a contact-electrification-activated artificial afferent at femtojoule energy. Upon the contact-electrification effect, the induced triboelectric signals activate the ion-gel-gated MoS2 postsynaptic transistor, endowing the artificial afferent with the adaptive capacity to carry out spatiotemporal recognition/sensation on external stimuli (e.g., displacements, pressures and touch patterns). The decay time of the synaptic device is in the range of sensory memory stage. The energy dissipation of the artificial afferents is significantly reduced to 11.9 fJ per spike. Furthermore, the artificial afferents are demonstrated to be capable of recognizing the spatiotemporal information of touch patterns. This work is of great significance for the construction of next-generation neuromorphic sensory network, self-powered biomimetic electronics and intelligent interactive equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rashba spin–orbit coupling (SOC) is a core issue in semiconductor spintronics, which allows the manipulation of electron spin through an electric field rather than an external magnetic field, revealing a bright prospect for advanced electronic devices with ultra-high speed and integration. Conversely, the emerging piezotronic effect is the born characteristic for many semiconductors that have a non-central symmetric structure, such as ZnO and GaN. Here, we design three heterostructure devices, based on piezoelectric p-type (CH3NH3)PbI3 single crystals and n-type wurtzite-structured ZnO thin films, to theoretically study how the piezotronic effect can effectively work on the Rashba spin–orbit coupling. Benefiting from large piezoelectric charges at the interface when a vertical strain is applied, a high concentration of two-dimensional electron gas is induced in the plane of the heterostructure, which can tune the built-in electric field at the interface and further manipulate the Rashba SOC. With the increase in pressure, both the Rashba parameter and spin splitting are found to first vanish and then increase linearly for ZnO with doping densities of 1015 and 1016 cm−3. This work provides insight for manipulating electron spins via the introduction of piezocharges, showing great application potential of the piezotronic effect in tuning spintronic devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quasi-one-dimensional nanostructures of silicon, oxides, and other materials show great promise for a variety of applications. These nanostructures are commonly grown using metal catalyst nanoparticles. This paper investigates the growth mechanism of Au-catalyzed Si nanowires through in situ x-ray diffraction, and the results are compared to previously studied Au-catalyzed ZnO nanorods. The Si nanowires were found to grow from molten catalyst particles, however, the ZnO nanorods were found to grow from solid catalyst particles through a surface diffusion process. From this comparison, the relative bonding types of the catalyst and source material are determined to have a significant effect on the growth mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the new era of internet of things, big data collection and analysis based on widely distributed intelligent sensing technology is particularly important. Here, we report a flexible and durable wood-based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered sensing in athletic big data analytics. Based on a simple and effective strategy, natural wood can be converted into a high-performance triboelectric material with excellent mechanical properties, such as 7.5-fold enhancement in strength, superior flexibility, wear resistance and processability. The electrical output performance is also enhanced by more than 70% compared with natural wood. A self-powered falling point distribution statistical system and an edge ball judgement system are further developed to provide training guidance and real-time competition assistance for both athletes and referees. This work can not only expand the application area of the self-powered system to smart sport monitoring and assisting, but also promote the development of big data analytics in intelligent sports industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high-speed micromotor is usually actuated by a power source with high voltage and frequency. Here we report a triboelectric micromotor by coupling a micromotor and a triboelectric nanogenerator, in which the micromotor can be actuated by ultralow-frequency mechanical stimuli. The performances of the triboelectric micromotor are exhibited at various structural parameters of the micromotor, as well as at different mechanical stimuli of the triboelectric nanogenerator. With a sliding range of 50mm at 0.1 Hz, the micromotor can start to rotate and reach over 1000 r min−1 at 0.8 Hz. The maximum operation efficiency of the triboelectric micromotor can reach 41%. Additionally, the micromotor is demonstrated in two scanning systems for information recognition. This work has realized a high-speed micromotor actuated by ultralow frequency mechanical stimuli without an external power supply, which has extended the application of triboelectric nanogenerator in micro/nano electromechanical systems, intelligent robots and autonomous driving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blue energy harvested from the ocean is an important and promising renewable energy for the sustainable development of society. Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are considered one of the most promising approaches for harvesting blue energy. In this work, a liquid-solid-contact triboelectric nanogenerator (LS TENG) is fabricated to enhance the friction and magnify energy output by 48.7 times, when compared with the solid-solid-contact TENG with the same area. The buoy-like LS TENG can harvest energy from different types of low-frequency vibration (including up-down, shaking, and rotation movements). Moreover, the outputs of the LS TENGs network can reach 290 µA, 16 725 nC, and 300 V, and the LS TENGs network can directly power hundreds of LEDs and drive a radio frequency emitter to form a selfpowered wireless save our souls (SOS) system for ocean emergencies. This work renders an innovative and effective approach toward large-scale blue energy harvesting and applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanosensation electronics (or Electronic skin, e-skin) consists of mechanically flexible and stretchable sensor networks that can detect and quantify various stimuli to mimic the human somatosensory system, with the sensations of touch, heat/cold, and pain in skin through various sensory receptors and neural pathways. Here we present a skin-inspired highly stretchable and conformable matrix network (SCMN) that successfully expands the e-skin sensing functionality including but not limited to temperature, in-plane strain, humidity, light, magnetic field, pressure, and proximity. The actualized specific expandable sensor units integrated on a structured polyimide network, potentially in three-dimensional (3D) integration scheme, can also fulfill simultaneous multi-stimulus sensing and achieve an adjustable sensing range and large-area expandability. We further construct a personalized intelligent prosthesis and demonstrate its use in real-time spatial pressure mapping and temperature estimation. Looking forward, this SCMN has broader applications in humanoid robotics, new prosthetics, human–machine interfaces, and health-monitoring technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With its light weight, low cost and high efficiency even at low operation frequency, the triboelectric nanogenerator is considered a potential solution for self-powered sensor networks and large-scale renewable blue energy. As an energy harvester, its output power density and efficiency are dictated by the triboelectric charge density. Here we report a method for increasing the triboelectric charge density by coupling surface polarization from triboelectrification and hysteretic dielectric polarization from ferroelectric material in vacuum (P ~ 10−6 torr). Without the constraint of air breakdown, a triboelectric charge density of 1003 μCm−2, which is close to the limit of dielectric breakdown, is attained. Our findings establish an optimization methodology for triboelectric nanogenerators and enable their more promising usage in applications ranging from powering electronic devices to harvesting large-scale blue energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoenergy is a field of studying the small-scale, highly efficient energy harvesting, storage, and applications by using nanomaterials and nanodevices. Nanogenerators are developed to harvest these small-scale energies in the ambient environment, which were first invented in our group in 2006. In the past decade, we have developed nanogenerators based on piezoelectric and triboelectric effects for mechanical energy harvesting, and those based on pyroelectric and thermoelectric effects for thermal energy harvesting. We also explored other novel nanogenerators such as that based on ion streams. The proposed nanogenerators will facilitate the development of self-powered systems, which enables efficient energy utilization and sustainable operations of mobile devices for "smart" wearable technology, health monitoring, biomedical sensing, environmental protection, and even security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Triboelectric nanogenerators attract more and more research attention, for their high efficiency, low fabrication cost, and high flexibility. However, the mechanism about triboelectrification remains highly debated. In this work, we constructed a liquid-metal based triboelectric nanogenerator (LM-TENG) and investigated the influence of the gas atmosphere on the triboelectrification between the liquid metal and the dielectric materials, such as PTFE, Kapton, and Nylon. It was found that the dielectric materials were negatively charged on contact with the liquid metal in ambient air. But in the nitrogen conditions, the polarity of the charges was reversed. Oxygen was excluded, which is responsible for the polarity reversal in contact electrification. Based on X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray, and SKFM data, a possible mechanism was proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By integrating a triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) and a thin film dielectric elastomer actuator (DEA), the DEA can be directly powered and controlled by the output of the TENG, which demonstrates a self-powered actuation system toward various practical applications in the fields of electronic skin and soft robotics. This paper describes a method to construct a physical model for this integrated TENG-DEA system on the basis of nonequilibrium thermodynamics and electrostatics induction theory. The model can precisely simulate the influences from both the viscoelasticity and current leakage to the output performance of the TENG, which can help us to better understand the interaction between TENG and DEA devices. Accordingly, the established electric field, the deformation strain of the DEA, and the output current from the TENG are systemically analyzed by using this model. A comparison between real measurements and simulation results confirms that the proposed model can predict the dynamic response of the DEA driven by contact-electrification and can also quantitatively analyze the relaxation of the tribo-induced strain due to the leakage behavior. Hence, the proposed model in this work could serve as a guidance for optimizing the devices in the future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the piezotronic effect has been observed in two-dimensional single-layer MoS2 materials, which have potential applications in force and pressure triggered or controlled electronic devices, sensors, and human-machine interfaces. However, classical theory faces the difficulty in explaining the mechanism of the piezotronic effect for the top- and enclosed-contacted MoS2 transistors, since the piezoelectric charges are assumed to exist only at the edge of the MoS2 flake that is far from the electronic transport pathway. In the present study, we identify the piezoelectric charges at the MoS2/metal-MoS2 interface by employing both the density functional theory and finite element method simulations. This interface is on the transport pathway of both top- and enclosed-contacted MoS2 transistors, thus it is capable of controlling their transport properties. This study deepens the understanding of piezotronic effect and provides guidance for the design of two-dimensional piezotronic devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human biomechanical energy is characterized by fluctuating amplitudes and variable low frequency, and an effective utilization of such energy cannot be achieved by classical energyharvesting technologies. Here we report a high-efficient self-charging power system for sustainable operation of mobile electronics exploiting exclusively human biomechanical energy, which consists of a high-output triboelectric nanogenerator, a power management circuit to convert the random a.c. energy to d.c. electricity at 60% efficiency, and an energy storage device. With palm tapping as the only energy source, this power unit provides a continuous d.c. electricity of 1.044mW (7.34Wm ― 3) in a regulated and managed manner. This self-charging unit can be universally applied as a standard ‘infinite-lifetime’ power source for continuously driving numerous conventional electronics, such as thermometers, electrocardiograph system, pedometers, wearable watches, scientific calculators and wireless radio-frequency communication system, which indicates the immediate and broad applications in personal sensor systems and internet of things. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The piezotronic effect uses strain-induced piezoelectric charges at interfaces and junctions to tune and/or control carrier transport in piezoelectric semiconductor devices. This effect has recently been observed in single-layer 2D MoS2 materials. However, previous work had found that metallic states are generated at the edge of a free-standing MoS2 flat sheet, and these states may screen the piezoelectric charges. Using density functional theory simulations, we found that the metal-MoS2 interface structure plays an important role in enhancing both the piezoelectric and piezotronic effects in MoS2 transistors by breaking the metallic state screening effect at the MoS2 edge. This study not only provides an understanding of the piezoelectric and piezotronic effects based on first principles calculations but also offers guidance for the design of two-dimensional piezotronic devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The output of a piezoelectric nanogenerator (NG) fabricated using ZnO nanowire arrays is largely influenced by the density of the surface charge carriers at the nanowire surfaces. Adsorption of gas molecules could modify the surface carrier density through a screening effect, thus, the output of the NG is sensitive to the gas concentration. Based on such a mechanism, we first studied the responses of an unpackaged NG to oxygen, H2S and water vapor, and demonstrated its sensitivity to H2S to a level as low as 100 ppm. Therefore, the piezoelectric signal generated by a ZnO NWs NG can act not only as a power source, but also as a response signal to the gas, demonstrating a possible approach as a self-powered active gas sensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A nanogenerator (NG) is a device that converts vibration energy into electricity. Here, a flexible, small size and lightweight NG is successfully demonstrated as an active sensor for detecting the vibration spectrum of a drum membrane without the use of an external power source. The output current/voltage signal of the NG is a direct measure of the strain of the local vibrating drum membrane that contains rich informational content, such as, notably, the vibration frequency, vibration speed and vibration amplitude. In comparison to the laser vibrometer, which is excessively complex and expensive, this kind of small and low cost sensor based on an NG is also capable of detecting the local vibration frequency of a drum membrane accurately. A spatial arrangement of the NGs on the membrane can provide position-dependent vibration information on the surface. The measured frequency spectrum can be understood on the basis of the theoretically calculated vibration modes. This work expands the application of NGs and reveals the potential for developing sound wave detection, environmental/infrastructure monitoring and many more applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The synthesis of ultra-long high-quality ZnO nanowires with uniform size and orientation on heterogeneous substrates is highly desirable, not only for investigating the fundamental properties of ZnO nanowires, but also for fabricating integrated functional nanodevices. Here we present a novel and general technique for growing vertically aligned ultra-long ZnO nanowires on various substrates. More importantly, the metal catalyst is experimentally determined not at the tip ends of the nanowires but at the junction area between the nanowires and the underlying substrate. Based on detailed analysis and control group results, we then propose a three-stage growth mechanism, in which vapor-liquid-solid growth and vapor-solid growth compete with each other to become dominant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hematite (α-Fe2O3) is a thermodynamically stable crystallographic phase of iron oxide and has attractive applications in many areas. By using a simple hydrothermal method, we synthesized smooth hematite microcubes and porous hematite microcubes. The as-synthesized microcubes have uniform edge lengths of about 1 μm. The magnetic, electrochemical properties and gas sensing performance to some organic gases were investigated, revealing the potential applications in various fields. By tuning the experimental parameters, such as source and solvent, we are able to tunably produce goethite (FeOOH) nanowires, and hematite nanoparticles, nanorods, and nanoplatelets and the formation mechanism was also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]