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In order to distinguish between language-related ideologies, Ruiz (1984) proposed three language orientations, namely 'language-as-problem', 'language-as-right' and 'language-as-resource'. Although this typology has been applied to various countries and regions around the globe, relevant research in China, a multi-ethnolinguistic country, remains limited. Through a review of China's minority language policies and relevant literature, this paper explores the application of Ruiz's theory to the context of China and proposes two possible directions which can complement this theory. Firstly, the study found that there are different layers, complexities, and even contradictions under a broad/unified language orientation, and that minority languages can be simultaneously positioned as a 'right', a 'resource' and a 'problem'. Secondly, by investigating a particular ethnic minority language (the Nuosu Yi language), the study found that the written (literacy) and spoken (oracy) skills of the language can be positioned differently in language-in-education policies and practices. We therefore propose that a critical 'biliteracy continua' lens (Hornberger 2004) can provide further analytical nuance to the language orientations put forward by Ruiz (1984). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent linguistic landscape (LL) research has witnessed a change in focus to untypical, peripheral and fluid signs. Compared to typical (or permanent, fixed, etc.) signs which tend to be subject to strong policy intervention, language use on untypical signs is often more autonomous, thus could better reflect the de facto language choice and preferences of local residents. Comparing the linguistic patterns between typical and untypical signs therefore provides a way to investigate the tension between mandated language policies and residents' language choice. In this study, we adopted the dichotomous terms proposed by Shang, G., and X. Zhou. 2020. "非典型语言景观的类型、特征及研究视角 [Peripheral Linguistic Landscape: Sign Types, Features and Research Perspectives]." 语言战略研究 5 (4): 37–47., namely 'typical' and 'peripheral', to explore the language use on public signs in Kashgar, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. By comparing typical and peripheral signs in Kashgar, the study found a significant discrepancy: Chinese is prioritised on typical signs due to top-down policy promotion, while Uyghur is used extensively on peripheral signs by local residents. This study demonstrates the importance of analysing peripheral linguistic landscape in strong-policy nations/regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The internationalisation of higher education (HE) worldwide has led to an expansion of courses using English-as-a-medium-of-instruction (EMI) in non-native-English-speaking countries. Research has identified complex challenges facing EMI educators in implementing EMI policies and suggested separately the significant roles educators' agency and perceptions of EMI play on their EMI practice. However, little is known about how individual educators exercise agency in response to the perceived demands of EMI teaching and the role of their interpretations and perceptions of EMI in the process. Adopting a cultural-historical theory perspective, this study explores how Chinese educators exercise agency to respond to perceived demands of EMI practice. Data included questionnaires and written interviews with ten academics teaching in EMI courses at three Chinese universities. Manifest in their engagement and commitment, deliberate actions and responsibilities towards themselves and students, their agency is unfolded in acts to improve their pedagogy and student learning of academic content, but not necessarily to develop students' English proficiency. Educators' perceptions of EMI appear to play a vital role in orienting their agency as they respond to demands from EMI practice when enacting EMI policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in formal Nuosu Yi language programmes has been waning in Liangshan, China, even though Nuosu Yi continues to be widely spoken among Yi residents. In this paper, we adopt Hornberger (2004. "The Continua of Biliteracy and the Bilingual Educator: Educational Linguistics in Practice." International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 7 (3): 155–171.)'s continua of biliteracy and a translanguaging perspective to explore this phenomenon, and draw on a qualitative study of Yi students' and their teachers' language practices in three schools. Data include observations of Yi students' and teachers' spoken practices both in casual interactions and formal classroom instruction, and photos of their formal and informal written practices. Findings revealed a literacy-oracy divide in formal Nuosu Yi education: written Nuosu Yi was prioritised at school but was not found to be widely used in daily life. By contrast, spoken Nuosu Yi, which was drawn on frequently by students and teachers in informal interactions, was largely excluded at school due to a highly standardised and literacy-focused institutional setting. The continua of biliteracy and translanguaging allowed a nuanced investigation into different kinds of language practices at school, showing how the existing communicative repertoire of the students was not considered to be an asset in formal education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing phenomenon of university courses designated as English-medium-instruction (EMI) worldwide presents new demands for non-native-English-speaking educators. However, adequate preparation and professional learning support for them to teach academic subjects in English remain a challenge. An understanding of their challenges and professional learning (PL) needs in EMI teaching is critically needed. This review examines 115 articles in English and Chinese on PL for EMI educators in HE, covering numerous countries. It critically reviews the literature to identify the common challenges in EMI teaching, and how and to what extent educators are prepared and supported for EMI teaching. Findings revealed EMI educators are often found unprepared and/or inadequately supported for their new roles. They face multiple challenges when embarking on EMI teaching. The review reveals misalignments between challenges facing educators and formal PL on offer. It also highlights the importance of informal ongoing PL and educators' agency in orchestrating their learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the linguistic landscape (LL) of a multi-ethnolinguistic city in China, namely Shangri-La City, where Tibetan, Han (Mandarin Chinese), English and several other minority languages are used. As one of the most well-known Chinese tourist cities by Western travellers, a city with rapid socioeconomic development, and a city that issued a signage policy recently, the LL of Shangri-La is affected by multiple factors (e.g. tourism, globalisation, language policy). In light of this, the study purposefully examines the LL of four different functional areas of the city, including a local community, a central administrative street, a tourist spot and a commercial street, to demonstrate different factors and their degree of influence on local LL. Data includes 1,064 signage photos and 53 interviews with government officials and sign-owners. The findings indicate that although the recent signage policy has increased the presence of Tibetan, it has also re-consolidated the existing linguistic hierarchy and further marginalised other minority languages in the region. The findings also reveal the negative views of local residents on the abuse of Tibetan in tourist domains. As such, a critical lens on the commodification of minority languages in tourism is proposed in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the linguistic landscape (LL) of four towns along the rural-urban line in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, which is located in southwest China and is the main residence of the Yi ethnic minority group. In recent years, the status of the Yi language has been challenged by Han (Chinese Mandarin) and English both in the field of education and general society in Liangshan. Recognising this, the local government has issued a range of policies to revitalise the Yi language, including ensuring its use on public signage. The aim of this study is to explore the LL of Liangshan, which has not been looked at before, and the actual implementation of these signage policies. 1497 language signs were analysed, including commercial signs, government signs and public signs in four schools. The findings indicate that the visibility of the Yi language on public signage is closely related to the intensity of policy support. However, in order to make signage policies effective, a holistic approach is in need at both prefectural and regional levels, and in 'micro spaces' such as education spheres and workplaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]