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Soil microbiome science, rapidly evolving, predominantly focuses on field crop soils. However, understanding garden soil microbiomes is essential for enhancing food production sustainability in garden environments. This study aimed to unveil the bacteriome diversity and composition in rooftop garden soils (RGS) and surface garden soils (SGS) across urban (Dhaka North and Dhaka South City Corporations) and peri-urban (Gazipur City Corporation) areas of Dhaka Division, Bangladesh. We analyzed 11 samples, including six RGS and five SGS samples from 11 individual gardens using 16S rRNA (V3–V4 region) gene-based amplicon sequencing. A total of 977 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), including 270 and 707 in RGS and SGS samples, respectively, were identified. The observed OTUs were represented by 21 phyla, 45 classes, 84 orders, 173 families, and 293 genera of bacteria. Alpha diversity indices revealed significantly higher bacterial diversity in SGS samples (p = 0.01), while beta diversity analyses indicated distinct bacteriome compositions between RGS and SGS samples (p = 0.028, PERMANOVA). Despite substantial taxonomic variability between sample categories, there was also a considerable presence of shared bacterial taxa. At the phylum level, Bacilliota (61.14%), Pseudomonadota (23.42%), Actinobacteria (6.33%), and Bacteroidota (3.32%) were the predominant bacterial phyla (comprising > 94.0% of the total abundances) in both types of garden soil samples. Of the identified genera, Bacillus (69.73%) and Brevibacillus (18.81%) in RGS and Bacillus (19.22%), Methylophaga (19.21%), Acinetobacter (6.27%), Corynebacterium (5.06%), Burkholderia (4.78%), Paracoccus (3.98%) and Lysobacter (2.07%) in SGS were the major bacterial genera. Importantly, we detected that 52.90% of genera were shared between RGS and SGS soil samples. Our data reveal unique and shared bacteriomes with probiotic potential in soil samples from both rooftop and surface gardens. Further studies should explore the functional roles of shared bacterial taxa in garden soils and how urban environmental factors affect microbiome composition to optimize soil health and sustainable food production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable food systems require mechanisms that assure consumers about the sustainability of agricultural production. Building on the existing literature on the impact of sustainability standards, this study is the first to assess the effectiveness of participatory guarantee systems (PGS) for the certification of organic produce. The study uses representative farm-level data on local vegetable value chains in northern Vietnam and uses a broad set of sustainability outcomes as well as counterfactual analysis, including systematic robustness checks. The results show that PGS significantly improves farm profitability (+117%), agroecology performance (+40%), and gives farmers more choice of sales channels (+23%). However, PGS had no significant effect on returns to labour and reduced the average crop yield. Capacity development on nursery practices, transplanting of healthy seedlings rather than direct seeding, reduced tillage, and collective crop planning and management are some of the innovations that can counter adverse effects on crop yields, increase soil health as well as improve returns to labour, and thus attract more youth to farming. Overall, the study shows that organic PGS can make vegetable production more economically viable and more agroecologically sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional vegetables are very important for food and nutrition security in sub-Saharan Africa but have not received much attention in crop improvement research. One exception is amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) for which international breeding research began at the World Vegetable Center in Tanzania in 2004. This study is the first impact evaluation of this research program. It uses a representative sample of 1,355 amaranth-producing households from five agroecological zones of Tanzania to collect questionnaire-based data and plant material. The genetic identity of the amaranth cultivars used by the farmers was identified using DNA fingerprinting, while the impact on crop yield, production cost and sales was quantified using propensity score matching. The analysis shows that 66% of Tanzania's cultivated area under amaranth uses cultivars derived from the amaranth breeding program. These cultivars had a mean vegetable yield that was 6.1 ton/ha higher (+ 48%; p = 0.002) than that of other cultivars, while there was no significant impact on the cost of production or quantity sold. This suggests tremendous impact of genetic improvement research in traditional vegetables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Integrated school and home garden interventions can improve health outcomes in low-income countries, but rigorous evidence remains scarce, particularly for school-aged children and to reduce anemia. Objective: We test if an integrated school and home garden intervention, implemented at pilot stage, improves hemoglobin levels among school children (aged 9-13 years) in a rural district in the mid-hills of Nepal. Methods: We use a cluster randomized controlled trial with 15 schools each in the control and treatment groups (n = 680 school children). To test if nutritional improvements translate into a reduction of anemia prevalence, hemoglobin data were collected 6 months after intervention support had ended. Using structural equation modeling, we estimate the direct and indirect effects of the treatment through several pathways, including nutritional knowledge, good food and hygiene practices, and dietary diversity. Results: The integrated school and home garden intervention did not lead to a direct significant reduction in anemia. Causal positive changes of the treatment on nutritional outcomes, although significant, are not strong enough to impact hemoglobin levels. The program improved hemoglobin levels indirectly for children below 12 by increasing the use of good food and hygiene practices at home. These practices are associated with higher hemoglobin levels, particularly for girls, young children, and in households where caregivers are literate. Conclusions: Even integrated school and home garden interventions are not sufficient to reduce anemia among school children. Incorporating behavioral change components around food and hygiene practices into integrated garden interventions is important to unlocking their health impacts. Plain language title: Effect of a Joint School and Home Garden Programme on Child Health Among School-Aged Children in Nepal Plain language summary: The effects of agricultural and nutritional support programs on health are not fully understood. This article looks at school and home gardens, which are gaining attention in the research and development community, but evidence for their effects is limited, particularly for lower-income countries. We examine whether a joint school and home garden program improves blood iron levels among school children (aged 9-13 years) in rural Nepal. Low levels are an indicator for anemia—a common nutritional disorder in South Asia. Our data come from an experiment involving 30 schools and 680 children and was measured via a finger prick method 6 months after program support ended. We also evaluate if the program influenced blood iron levels through the nutritional knowledge of children and their caregivers; through the use of good food and hygiene practices at home and the children's dietary diversity. Our results indicate that the program did not lead to a direct reduction in anemia. However, for children under the age of 12, the program indirectly improved blood iron levels through behavioral changes in the use of good food and hygiene practices (e.g., washing hands before eating). We therefore argue that including education on nutrition and good food and hygiene practices as part of integrated garden support programs is key to improving children's health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic severely affected global food security, but analyses of its impact on the cost and affordability of a healthy diet are limited. This study examines the immediate effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cost and affordability of a healthy diet among urban households in Bangkok, Thailand and Manila, the Philippines. Methods: We used official food price and household income and food expenditure data from the national statistics offices. The cost of recommended diet (CoRD) method was employed to assess the minimum cost of a healthy diet, following the healthy diet recommendations provided in the national food-based dietary guidelines of the specific countries. Regression discontinuity design was estimated to determine the COVID-19 effect on food prices and scenario analysis done to determine the effect of reduced food budgets with and without government relief programs. Results: The results show that the average cost of the recommended diet was US$ 1.55 per person/day in Bangkok and US$ 3.76 in Manila (2019 prices in purchasing power parities) immediately before the pandemic. This diet is generally affordable for all households in Bangkok, but only for 37% of households (4.98 million people) in Manila, indicating much higher poverty in the latter. The pandemic and associated government measures decreased the cost of the recommended diet with 6.5% in Bangkok (p = 0.001) but not in Manila (p = 0.167). Assuming contractions in people's food budgets of 15–20%, the recommended diet became unaffordable for 0.08–0.12 million people in Bangkok and 6.32–7.73 million people in Manila during the pandemic. Government relief largely compensated for this loss in Bangkok, but relief payments in Manila were not enough to compensate the effect. Conclusion: These results show that the main effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the affordability of healthy diets was through the effect on reduced incomes of the poor rather than through prices. Government relief measures should target low-income households to give them the means to purchase healthy food items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: School-based interventions have been implemented in resource-limited settings to promote healthy dietary habits, but their sustainability remains a challenge. This study identified positive deviants (PDs) and negative deviants (NDs) from the control and treatment groups in a nutrition-sensitive agricultural intervention in Nepal to identify factors associated with healthy dietary practices. Methods: This is an explanatory mixed methods study. Quantitative data come from the endline survey of a cluster randomized controlled trial of a school and home garden intervention in Nepal. Data were analyzed from 332 and 317 schoolchildren (grades 4 and 5) in the control and treatment group, respectively. From the control group, PDs were identified as schoolchildren with a minimum dietary diversity score (DDS) ≥ 4 and coming from low wealth index households. From the treatment group, NDs were identified as schoolchildren with a DDS < 4 and coming from high wealth index households. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify factors associated with PDs and NDs. Qualitative data were collected through in-depth phone interviews with nine pairs of parents and schoolchildren in each PD and ND group. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically and integrated with quantitative data in the analysis. Results: Twenty-three schoolchildren were identified as PDs, and 73 schoolchildren as NDs. Schoolchildren eating more frequently a day (AOR = 2.25; 95% CI:1.07–5.68) and whose parents had a higher agricultural knowledge level (AOR = 1.62; 95% CI:1.11–2.34) were more likely to be PDs. On the other hand, schoolchildren who consumed diverse types of vegetables (AOR = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.38–0.81), whose parents had higher vegetable preference (AOR = 0.72; 95% CI: 0.53–0.97) and bought food more often (AOR = 0.71; 95% CI: 0.56–0.88) were less likely to be NDs. Yet, schoolchildren from households with a grandmother (AOR = 1.98; 95% CI: 1.03–3.81) were more likely to be NDs. Integrated results identified four themes that influenced schoolchildren's DDS: the availability of diverse food, the involvement of children in meal preparation, parental procedural knowledge, and the grandmother's presence. Conclusion: Healthy dietary habit can be promoted among schoolchildren in Nepal by encouraging parents to involve their children in meal preparation and increasing the awareness of family members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmers in sub-Saharan Africa do not have much choice of quality seed of vegetable cultivars adapted to local growing conditions and consumer demand. Only a handful of vegetable seed companies invest in local breeding research, while nearly all rely on seed imports. Our objective was to analyse to what extent existing seed laws and regulations enable or restrict the development of a research-based vegetable seed sector in Africa. Using a regulatory value chain approach, we analysed written laws and regulations for 13 countries and interviewed private and public sector stakeholders. We generally find that countries have taken a government-centred approach to seed quality control without recognizing that government agencies have little capacity to do this properly for vegetable crops. Mandatory Value for Cultivation and Use (VCU) trials and state-controlled seed certification are the two examples of regulatory approaches that may work for cereals but are not well suited for vegetables. No country has vegetable breeding as a goal in their national seed policy, and only four set out specific objectives for the vegetable seed sector. Tailoring seed policies, laws and regulations more specifically to vegetables could stimulate local variety development and seed production and benefit smallholder farmers and consumers at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India experienced a rapid rise in COVID-19 infections from March 2021. States imposed varying levels of lockdowns and curfews to curb the spread of the disease. These restrictions severely affected the functioning of food systems. The objective of this study was to analyze how COVID-19 continues to affect agricultural production, food security and household diets of vegetable farmers. A phone-based survey was conducted with 595 vegetable farmers in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Odisha, 60% of whom had been interviewed a year earlier. Overall, 60% of farmers experienced decreased vegetable production; over 80% reported a reduction in consumption of at least one food group; and 45% reported some level of food insecurity between May 2020 and May 2021. Farmers who reported decreased staples production, difficulty accessing seeds/seedlings, or reduced their household spending were more likely to report decreased vegetable production. Vegetable consumption was positively associated with receipt of COVID-19 relief benefits, borrowing money, or having home gardens. Farmers who received public agricultural assistance, or had reduced expenses, were more likely to have lower vegetable consumption. Greater severity of food insecurity was associated with farmers belonging to underprivileged social groups, non-Hindus, or those who experienced decrease in livestock production, weather related disruptions or received COVID-19 assistance. This is one of few studies that have conducted a longitudinal assessment of the impacts across multiple waves of COVID-19. COVID-19 is seen to be one among several shocks experienced by farm households, and exacerbated existing issues within agriculture and food security. There is a need for public policy support to strengthen both production and consumption of vegetables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In homestead food production (HFP) programs, village model farmers (VMFs), after training, implement agriculture and nutrition activities to improve household knowledge and practices. Little evidence exists on what enables VMFs to remain actively engaged and for impacts to be sustained.Objective: To examine variables explaining active engagement of VMFs, at least 4 years post-training, in an HFP program in Nepal.Methods: We used cross-sectional data, collected from 2018 to 2019, among 4750 VMFs of Suaahara, a multisectoral nutrition program. We assessed whether respondents registered their HFP group with the local government, conducted regular group meetings, discussed vegetable growing and chicken rearing practices with group members, or engaged in saving and credit activities in their HFP group. Outcome variable was a count of these 4 activities in which the VMF engaged. Socioeconomic, demographic, and programmatic explanatory variables were identified a priori and by bivariate analysis and were adjusted in ordinal regression models accounting for clusters.Results: On average, VMFs engaged in 1.4 activities. Having attended primary or secondary school (adjusted odds ratios [AOR] = 1.39), being a female community health volunteer (AOR = 1.27), being from an advantaged caste/ethnic group (AOR = 1.34), receiving additional trainings (AOR = 1.56) and inputs (AOR = 1.31) were associated with more active engagement of VMFs.Conclusion: Village model farmers receiving more training and inputs were more likely to remain actively engaged. Female community health workers, people from higher caste/ethnic groups, and those with primary or secondary education were more likely to remain active VMFs and could be targeted for this role in HFP programs leading to sustained impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Home garden interventions combining training in agriculture and nutrition have the potential to increase vegetable production and consumption in lower-income countries, but there remains a need for better evidence for impact. This study contributes to filling this gap by evaluating the impact and distributional effects of a home garden intervention in Cambodia. We used a cluster randomized controlled trial with before and after data for a sample of 500 rural households with children under five and women 16–49 years old. Impact was estimated using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and conditional quantile regressions with non-parametric bounds. The results show that the intervention significantly increased the adoption of nearly all promoted gardening methods. More households (+ 35%; p < 0.01) produced vegetables, and the production period was extended by five months on average. One-month recall data show an increase in vegetables harvested (+ 25 kg; p < 0.01) and consumed (+ 10 kg; p < 0.01) from the garden. Quantile regressions confirm these findings and show that nearly all households benefitted, but households that were already doing better at baseline tended to benefit more. Seven-day recall data show an increase in the quantity of vegetables consumed (+ 61 g/day/capita; p < 0.01) and an increased quantity of vitamin A, folate, iron, and zinc contained in these vegetables. Women contributed more to the garden work than men and their time spent in the garden increased by 29 min/day on average. These results add further evidence that integrated home garden interventions can contribute to nutrition outcomes and that almost all participants can benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vegetables are an essential element in healthy diets, but intakes are low around the world and there is a lack of systematic knowledge on how to improve diets through food system approaches. Methods: This scoping review assessed how studies of food systems for healthy diets have addressed the role of vegetables in low- and middle-income countries. We apply the PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews to narratively map the literature to an accepted food systems framework and identify research gaps. Results: We found 1383 relevant articles, with increasing numbers over 20 years. Only 6% of articles looked at low-income countries, and 93% looked at single-country contexts. Over half of articles assessed vegetables as a food group, without looking at diversity within the food group. 15% looked at traditional vegetables. Issues of physical access to food were among the least studied food system topics in our review (7% of articles). Only 15% of articles used a comprehensive food system lens across multiple dimensions. There is also a research gap on the impacts of different policy and practice interventions (13% of articles) to enable greater vegetable consumption. Conclusions: Food system studies necessarily drew on multiple disciplines, methods and metrics to describe, analyze, and diagnose parts of the system. More work is needed across disciplines, across contexts, and across the food system, including understanding interventions and trade-offs, and impacts and change for diets particularly of marginalized population groups. Filling these gaps in knowledge is necessary in order to work toward healthy vegetable-rich diets for everyone everywhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food systems in many countries are experiencing a shift from traditional foods toward processed foods high in sugar, fat and salt, but low in dietary fiber and micronutrients. There is an urgent need to better understand drivers of changing food behavior, particularly for lower-income countries. This study analyzes drivers of food choice among children and parents in rural Nepal. It uses qualitative data collected through key informant interviews and focus group discussions with school children, parents and teachers. The study reveals substantial changes in food behavior during the past decade with increased consumption of rice, meat, and highly processed snack foods while an increased consumption of fruit and vegetables is not evident. It identifies cash availability is the main driver of increased rice, meat and snack food consumption. The second driver is the 2015 Nepal earthquake, which accelerated the transition from homegrown food to purchased food as people got habituated to eating more meat and snack foods while reconstruction tripled local wages and changed the food environment. This shows how humanitarian assistance in the wake of extreme shocks can unintentionally contribute to unhealthy eating habits. An integrated school and home garden intervention appears to contribute to healthier diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need for agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa to diversify into more nutrient-rich crops to meet the subcontinent's nutritional needs in terms of micronutrients and reduce health risks related to high and rising rates of overweight/obesity. Many traditional African vegetables (TAVs) are nutrient-dense and have much potential to reduce malnutrition. These vegetables can also provide sustainable incomes to rural, urban and peri-urban farming communities. In addition to their high economic values and health benefits, most TAVs are amenable to be grown under low input conditions and even organically. However, TAVs are under-researched and underutilized across the vegetable value chain. This paper provides a detailed account of the value of TAVs, focusing on their importance, research and development progress, and future needs. To exploit the potential of TAVs, there is need for a more concerted research and development efforts including effective characterization of the nutrition and genetic profiles; enhancing adaptability and yield gains; and capacity development in value addition, postharvest handling, processing, marketing, and seed system development. Success in these areas depends on effective collaborations among national and international partners including the private seed sector, and government and non-governmental organizations working in the areas of agriculture, nutrition and health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fostering better access to more nutritious foods across sub-Saharan Africa will be critical to ending hunger and malnutrition. In Asia, vegetable production and consumption have grown rapidly since the 1990s and the development of a dynamic vegetable seed industry, led by the private sector, played a pivotal role in this process. The availability of locally-bred and adapted varieties facilitated the rapid expansion of production and increased the supply of affordable vegetables to consumers. In contrast, the vegetable seed sector in sub-Saharan Africa has been slow to develop and has received little attention in the development agenda. Drawing from Asia's experience, this paper outlines a four-point strategy to accelerate the vegetable seed sector in sub-Saharan Africa. First, there is a need to strengthen the technical capacity of African seed companies to allow them to develop varieties that are well-adapted to local conditions and consumer preferences. Second, seed regulations, originally designed with food grains in mind, should be reviewed and revised to facilitate domestic vegetable breeding research and seed production. Third, more farmer extension is needed to exploit improved varieties together with good management practices. Fourth, vegetable marketing systems should be strengthened to reduce risks to farmers and traders. Investment in these four areas will help energize private sector investment in the vegetable seed sector. Asian experience suggests that investment in locally adapted vegetable varieties is a critical step in improving productivity, availability and ultimately consumption of nutritious vegetables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Nepal School Meals Program reached 600,000 schoolchildren in basic education in 2017 and plays a key role in the government's strategy to increase children's academic and nutritional outcomes. A large part of the program is implemented through cash transfers with schools responsible for the school meal delivery. Home-grown school feeding, an approach in which local communities are given greater control over the school meals program and part of the food is sourced locally, may strengthen local ownership and improve meal quality, but there is a lack of evidence for impact.Methods: This study piloted home-grown school feeding in 30 schools reaching nearly 4000 children in Sindhupalchok and Bardiya districts in Nepal with the aim to assess operations and outcomes in comparison to the regular cash-based school meals program. The study used a one-time post evaluation with a mixed methods approach. Qualitative data were collected through 12 focus group discussions and 28 key informant interviews with government and school staff, parents, cooks, cooperative members, World Food Programme representatives and other stakeholders involved in the pilot program. The quantitative part applied a quasi-experimental design and used cross-sectional data collected from 1512 children in 30 pilot and 30 control schools.Results: The quantitative data indicated that children in the pilot schools had a significantly higher provision of midday school meals (+ 19%; p < 0.01) and a higher school meal quality in terms of dietary diversity (+ 44%; p < 0.01) and nutritional content (e.g. a 21%-points higher consumption of vitamin A-rich fruit and vegetables; p < 0.01). The qualitative data identified key drivers of these positive outcomes as the use of standard meal options, capacity building of local stakeholders, strengthened community ownership and accountability mechanisms, and local food supply chains. Maintaining the observed gains would require a 20-33% increase in the current budget per school meal in addition to the cost of capacity building.Conclusions: This study for Nepal shows that home-grown school feeding strengthened operations of the school meals program and led to a significantly higher meal provision and quality of school meals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated home garden interventions combine training in gardening practices with education about nutrition knowledge. Such interventions have been shown to improve nutrition behaviour in low income countries. However, to date rigorous evidence is lacking for their long-term impact. We test the impact of an integrated home garden intervention on vegetable production and consumption three years after the intervention ended. We analyse three rounds of survey data for 224 control and 395 intervention households in rural Bangladesh. Three years after the intervention, the average impact on vegetable production per household was 43 kg/year (+ 49% over baseline levels; p < 0.01), and the effect was not statistically different from the impact one year after the intervention, which demonstrates that impact was maintained in the long-term. The impact on the micronutrient supply for iron, zinc, folate and pro-vitamin A from home gardens was maintained in the long-term. These impacts may have been driven by the long-term improvements in women's nutrition knowledge and gardening practices, explaining the sustainability of the behavioural nutrition change. We also identify positive impacts on women's empowerment and women's output market participation, highlighting how integrated programs, even if modest in scope, can be drivers of social change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the combined impact of school vegetable gardens linked to complementary nutrition education on the nutritional awareness, knowledge, perceptions, and eating behavior of 8–14-year-old schoolchildren in Burkina Faso. The study uses a repeated cluster randomized controlled trial and a sample of 30 schools and 1,760 schoolchildren. The results show a small but significant (p < 0.05) increase in knowledge of sustainable agriculture (+5.0%) and knowledge of food and nutrition (+6.6%), but no significant increase in other outcome indicators including fruit and vegetable consumption. More caution is needed in the promotion of school gardens for improving child nutrition in very low income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adoption of improved varieties is an important indicator of the effectiveness of agricultural research. This study quantified the adoption of improved mungbean (Vigna radiata (L). Wilczek) varieties and agricultural practices in Bangladesh, India, Myanmar and Pakistan using an expert elicitation approach. Data were collected from 19 expert panels, organized at subnational levels and involving a total of 259 mungbean experts. The study found that improved varieties were planted on 94% of the mungbean area in Pakistan, 89% in Myanmar, 82% in India and 72% in Bangladesh. International mungbean breeding research conducted by the World Vegetable Center has had a major impact with its germplasm adopted by an estimated 1.2 million mungbean farmers and grown on 1.8 million hectares of land. Widespread variation in the adoption of improved technologies at subnational levels point to opportunities for increased mungbean yields such as the adoption of line sowing and mechanical harvesting, the use of seed treatments with biofertilizers and biopesticides, and the adoption of better varieties with more comprehensive disease resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genebanks explore new partnerships with farmers and other user groups to provide smallholder farmers in Africa better access to crop diversity for improved nutrition, climate change adaptation and agricultural diversification. This paper shows how the World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) genebank of traditional African vegetables and its partners distributed over 42,000 seed kits containing over 183,000 vegetable seed samples from 2013 to 2017 to smallholder farmers in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. The seed kits contained seed samples of promising accessions and open-pollinated breeding lines of traditional African vegetables, and to a lower degree of tomato, Capsicum pepper and soybean, usually enough to plant in a home garden. We identified four research questions to better understand the role of vegetable seed kits in strengthening local seed systems, impact on local vegetable diversity, improving human nutrition and supporting climate-resilient agriculture. As formal seed systems expand their reach, the genebank's role to supply vegetable diversity to public and private breeding programmes becomes more important. To optimize supply of vegetable diversity, the WorldVeg genebank of traditional African vegetables continues working with partners in both formal and local seed systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural mechanization is important to increase farm incomes through greater farm labour productivity, but could also have adverse social consequences, for instance, by marginalizing the role of women in agriculture. The study aims to gain better indulgent of how mechanization of the smallholder farming affects the role of and benefits for women from agricultural work using case of mungbean in Pakistan. Mungbean is an important summer pulse in Pakistan, but average yield is very low at about 1 t/ha. Mungbean production is partially mechanized in all parts of the country, but harvesting and weeding are done using manual labour, most of it provided by women. Primary data come from interviews with 106 persons in two villages; one in which mechanical harvesting had been adopted and one comparable village where it had not been introduced. The data collection methods were mostly qualitative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to develop a straightforward method to quantify volume and value of postharvest losses in the tomato postharvest value chain in Nepal and estimate the monetary loss shouldered by value chain actors.Design/methodology/approach The study combines interview data to quantify volume and prices with produce sampling to quantify quality losses, and does this at four nodes of the tomato value chain in Nepal: farmers, collectors, wholesalers, and retailers to estimate volume and value of postharvest losses.Findings Almost one-fourth of the total tomato harvest weight that enters the value chain is lost before it reaches consumers, and other one-fifth is traded by the value chain actors at reduced price due to quality damage. The total volume of postharvest loss (weight and quality loss) is not the same for all value chain actors and the average monetary loss ranges from 4 percent of gross revenues for farmers to 12 percent for wholesalers.Practical implications A standard method to account for both physical weight losses and quality losses of horticultural produce is lacking in estimates of the monetary value of postharvest losses for horticultural crops. Knowing such losses is essential for postharvest technology generation, promotion, and adoption. This study provides a framework that can be adopted and improved in future loss assessment studies for estimating the volume and value of postharvest losses in a horticultural value chain.Originality/value The uniqueness of the method used in this study is that it combines interview data to estimate price and volume with produce sampling to quantify quality losses, and does this at four nodes of the value chain: farmers, collectors, wholesalers, and retailers. This method could become a standard approach for assessment of postharvest weight and quality losses and to estimate the monetary value of total postharvest losses in the value chain for horticultural crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a lack of evidence for impact at scale of vegetable research and development, although the importance of vegetables for human nutrition and smallholder incomes is generally understood. We therefore study adoption and impact of improved tomato and African eggplant varieties developed through international agricultural research, released by national agricultural research and extension systems, and supplied to farmers by private seed companies in East and Southern Africa from 1990 to 2014. The study finds that in 2014, varieties developed by the World Vegetable Center accounted for 50% of tomato and 98% of African eggplant commercial seed production in East and Southern Africa. For Tanzania alone, investment in crop improvement generated economic gains of US$ 255 million for tomato and US$ 5 million for African eggplant up to 2014. The internal rate of return is 26% for tomato and 12% for African eggplant, though we project the latter to increase to 26% by 2024 as the variety was released only in 2007. These findings support the view that agricultural policy and investment reoriented towards contemporary nutritional challenges will give high returns to investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluates the combined impact of school gardens linked to complementary lessons and promotional activities about gardening and nutrition on the nutritional awareness, knowledge, perceptions, eating behaviour and nutritional status of 10- to 15-year-old schoolchildren in Nepal. We used a cluster randomised controlled trial design to collect data from 30 schools and a sample of 1275 and 785 schoolchildren for the 2014 and 2015 school years, respectively. After one year of intervention, we found a significant (p < 0.01) increase in children’s awareness about fruit and vegetables, their knowledge about sustainable agriculture, their knowledge about food, nutrition and health and their stated preferences for eating fruit and vegetables. However, these improvements in intermediary outcomes did not translate into significant improvements in fruit and vegetable consumption or nutritional status. To influence children’s food decisions, it may be required to work more intensively with parents and to increase the availability of fruit and vegetables at the household and community level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop breeding research by international agricultural research centers usually serves public sector crop breeding, but does it still have a role when research and development have shifted to the private sector? This paper explores this question for vegetables in India using data from 27 private companies and 9 public organizations. We focus on tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.) and chili pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.)-two of India's most important vegetables, and the role of international germplasm received from the World Vegetable Center. Results show that as the role of the private sector in vegetable breeding increased, and with it the share of hybrids in the market, the role of international agricultural research shifted from the provision of ready-made varieties to the provision of specific resistance traits. Still, international germplasm continued to be used in varietal development with 11.6 t (14 % of the total market) of hybrid tomato seed and 15.0 t (13 %) of hybrid chili pepper seed sold in 2014 containing international germplasm in its pedigree. We estimate that over half a million farmers use such seed. We conclude that for tomato and chili pepper, international breeding needs to focus on pre-breeding research, capacity strengthening of smaller seed companies, and the delivery of open-pollinated varieties for marginal environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

School gardening interventions have been touted as an effective approach to improve children's eating habits in developed countries, but there is little evidence for their impact in developing countries. We studied the combined effect of school gardens linked to complementary lessons and promotional activities on the eating behavior and nutritional status of 9- to 15-year-old schoolchildren in Bhutan. We also studied the effect on a range of secondary indicators derived from the impact pathway. We used data from 468 schoolchildren in 9 control and 9 treatment schools following a randomized controlled trial design. We found that the school gardening intervention significantly increased children's awareness about vegetables, their knowledge about sustainable agriculture, and their preferences for healthier foods. We found an 11.7-percentage point increase in the probability that children included vegetables in their meals ( p < 0.05), but not in the number of different fruits or vegetables consumed. These results support the idea that comprehensive school garden interventions, combining gardening with education and promotion, can positively influence food preferences and food behavior in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantifies the impact and cost-effectiveness of training poor rural women in Bangladesh in home gardening and nutrition. We use baseline and follow-up data for 646 intervention and control households and apply a difference-in-difference estimator. We find that the intervention significantly (p < 0.01) increased vegetable production (+16.5 g/person/day), vegetable consumption and the micronutrient supply from the garden. Using the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) approach, we show that the intervention can be considered cost-effective in abating iron, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies. Home garden interventions can therefore make an effective contribution to addressing micronutrient undernutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Intensification of agricultural land use in developing countries is coincident with increased use of synthetic pesticides, which could lead to misuse and overuse. For measures to reduce risk from pesticides to be effective, it is necessary to understand farmers’ rationale for pesticide use. This study was undertaken to analyze the relationship between pesticide use and farmers’ risk behavior and knowledge of pesticide risk. Data were gathered from 200 Thai farmers growing hot (chili) pepper (Capsicum annuumL) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicumL). Pesticide risk knowledge was measured using a pesticide risk beliefs inventory. Risk behavior was measured with farmers making pesticide use decisions under hypothetical situations. Farmers were highly risk averse because they preferred to incur a high cost of pesticides to quickly eliminate pest problems. Regression analysis indicated that pesticide use is positively associated with lower levels of pesticide knowledge and higher levels of risk aversion. Enhancing farmer knowledge about pesticide risk can make an immediate contribution to lowering pesticide use. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Plant diseases caused by vector-transmitted viruses like begomovirus inflict serious damage in terms of yield and colossal loss in many crops, predominantly Chilli. Coupled with bleak farm awareness and lack of management options, they could severely hamper remuneration prospects. In this connection, the profitability of the farm level begomovirus management strategies has been analyzed in this study. A sample of 100 chilli farmers were surveyed with focus on their perceptions of begomovirus caused diseases. Findings revealed a majority of farmers (80 per cent) experienced cross loss due to viral diseases. Positive changes in output and production cost were also reported with the adoption of management strategies, which in turn were categorized in to: low, medium and high. Besides, it was also revealed that when compared with no management strategy, the change in the gross margin was 17 per cent, 26 per cent and 80 per cent after the adoption of low, medium and high level of management strategies, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Home-based vegetable production has been recognized as a nutrition- and gender-sensitive intervention that has the potential to improve nutrition in developing countries, yet evidence is lacking. This study tested whether women's training in improved home gardens (including nutrition as well as technical aspects) contributes to increased production and consumption of vegetables, which are necessary preconditions for improving nutrition. The study used data from 582 poor rural women in two districts of Bangladesh (479 control and 103 intervention). Training increased the per capita production of mostly leafy vegetables from 20 to 37 kg per year (+86 %). Diversity of production and frequency of harvesting also increased. In terms of nutrient yields, the improved gardens increased the supply of plant proteins by 171 %, iron by 284 %, vitamin A by 189 % and vitamin C by 290 %. Training had a significant impact on the diversity of vegetables consumed, based on 30-day food frequency data and also increased the relative involvement of women in the home garden for all gardening tasks. These results indicate that women's home gardens are an effective intervention in Bangladesh for increasing the supply and consumption of a diverse range of vegetables in poor rural households, thereby contributing to nutrition security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetable legumes are important crops in tropical agriculture, but they are susceptible to a substantial number of arthropod pests and diseases. Using farm-level survey data for 240 farm households growing yard-long bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) in Thailand and Vietnam, this study shows that the farmers' main problem is the legume pod borer (Maruca vitrata). Farmers rely exclusively on the use of synthetic pesticides to manage this pest, and no other control methods are generally applied. Small cultivated areas for growing yard-long bean (particularly in Vietnam), a high level of satisfaction with the use of pesticides and a lack of market demand for pesticide-free produce are formidable challenges to the introduction of integrated pest management (IPM). It is important to ensure that IPM methods, if adopted, do not reduce profits and that farmers are allowed to experiment with these methods while raising awareness in the general population about the risk resulting from pesticide exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

AVRDC - The World Vegetable Center maintains the world's largest international public collection of vegetable genetic resources at its headquarters in Taiwan. The ex situ conservation and dissemination of germplasm to researchers and breeders worldwide contributes to global food and nutrition security but also carries considerable costs. The objective of this study is to quantify these costs for the 12-month period from September 2011 to August 2012 using the Decision Support Tool developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute. The results show that the present value of capital assets is USD 1.99 million for the facilities and USD 0.48 million for the equipment. The total annual cost is USD 0.684 million, of which 74 % are labor costs. The average conservation and dissemination cost per accession is USD 10.08 per year. Seed regeneration, seed processing, characterization, and seed dissemination are the four most costly operations of the genebank. The storage itself only contributes 17 % of the cost. In comparison, the average cost per accession is USD 5.15 at ICARDA, USD 6.84 at CIMMYT, USD 8.62 at ICRISAT, USD 9.19 at IRRI, and USD 22.52 at CIAT (in 2012 US dollar values). High labor costs in Taiwan increase AVRDC's average cost, but the fact that more vegetable species are self-pollinating and thus less labor intensive to regenerate than cross-pollinating species keeps the average costs in check. These results are important benchmarks for other genebanks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the chronic overuse and misuse of pesticides in agriculture, governments in Southeast Asia have sought to improve food safety by introducing public standards of good agricultural practices (GAP). Using quantitative farm-level data from an intensive horticultural production system in northern Thailand, we test if fruit and vegetable producers who follow the public GAP standard use fewer and less hazardous pesticides than producers who do not adhere to the standard. The results show that this is not the case. By drawing on qualitative data from expert interviews and an action research project with local litchi ('lychee') producers we explain the underlying reasons for the absence of significant differences. The qualitative evidence points at poor implementation of farm auditing related to a program expansion that was too rapid, at a lack of understanding among farmers about the logic of the control points in the standard, and at a lack of alternatives given to farmers to manage their pest problems. We argue that by focusing on the testing of farm produce for pesticide residues, the public GAP program is paying too much attention to the consequences rather than the root cause of the pesticide problem; it needs to balance this by making a greater effort to change on-farm practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines how a resettlement programme in northwestern Vietnam has affected the livelihood assets, strategies and outcomes of the resettled and host households. Data were collected using informal interviews, followed by a structured survey of 56 resettled and 52 host households. Results show a significant decline in natural capital for the resettled households and a lesser decline for the host households; however, both groups have partially compensated for this through land use intensification. The net income of the host households did not change significantly after resettlement, whereas the farm revenues of the resettled households fell dramatically, but, due to the compensation payments made to them, their net household income actually increased. Most compensation money has been consumed rather than invested in livelihood assets; livelihood outcomes might therefore deteriorate when the compensation payments end. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses an agent-based model for ex ante assessment of agricultural innovations. The model builds on whole farm mathematical programming (MP) and extends the methodology with a spatial representation of the system, the heterogeneity of farm households and landscapes, and the interaction between farm households.We apply the model in a northern Thai watershed to study the potential of four innovations to increase the profitability of litchi orchards. Cost-benefit analysis shows that each innovation would increase the profitability of litchi growing; however, the results of the agent-based model show that at current price levels these innovations alone would not be enough to stem the decline in the area under litchis. The model was validated and the sensitivity of the results tested for variations in the irrigated water supply and liquidity. We report on how farmers responded to these results and discuss the implications for other areas in northern Thailand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the diffusion of greenhouse agriculture in a watershed in the northern uplands of Thailand by applying econometrics and agent-based modeling in combination. Adoption has been rapid by farmers in the central valley of the watershed, while farmers at higher altitudes, lacking transferable land titles that could serve as mortgage collateral, have been unable to obtain loans for greenhouse investment. The objectives of the paper are both methodological and empirical. On the methodological side, it shows that econometrically estimated models of farm household behavior are useful to design and to parameterize an agent-based model. On the empirical side, simulation results show that if mortgage collateral would not be required, then adoption in the upper part of the watershed could reach nearly 77% of farm households by 2020, as compared to about 36% under current conditions. Furthermore results suggest a significant increase in incomes related to the innovation and a substantially greater irrigation water use, especially in the central part. As bell pepper under greenhouses has replaced pesticide-intensive chrysanthemum, it has declined average levels of pesticide use. Nevertheless, pesticide use is high and farmers are struggling to control pests, which raises questions about the long-term sustainability of the innovation. Dans le présent article, nous avons analysé, à l'aide d'un modèle économétrique et d'un modèle multi-agent, l'expansion de la culture en serre dans un bassin versant des hautes terres du Nord de la Thaïlande. Les agriculteurs de la vallée centrale du bassin versant ont adopté rapidement cette forme d'agriculture, tandis que les agriculteurs installés dans les hautes altitudes n’ont pu, faute de titres fonciers transférables pouvant servir de garantie, obtenir de prêts pour construire des serres. Les objectifs du présent article étaient à la fois méthodologiques et empiriques. Sur le plan méthodologique, notre étude a montré que les modèles de comportement des ménages agricoles estimés économétriquement sont utiles pour concevoir et paramétrer un modèle multi-agent. Sur le plan empirique, les résultats de simulation ont montré que, si des garanties de prêt n’étaient pas exigées, 77 p. 100 des ménages agricoles adopteraient la culture en serre dans les hautes terres du bassin versant d'ici 2020, comparativement à environ 36 p. 100 dans les conditions actuelles. De nouveaux résultats ont indiqué que cette innovation ainsi qu’un usage accru de l'eau pour l'irrigation, particulièrement dans la partie centrale, pourraient générer une hausse substantielle des revenus. Depuis que la culture en serre du poivron vert a remplacé la culture du chrysanthème exigeante en pesticides, l'usage des pesticides a beaucoup diminué, mais demeure tout de même élevé. Les agriculteurs ont de la difficultéà lutter contre les ravageurs, ce qui soulève des questions sur la viabilitéà long terme de l'innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a random sample of 240 farm households in Chiang Mai province, Thailand, this study shows that—contrary to widespread belief—Karen farm households are well-integrated into markets. Average levels of market integration are 31% for gross farm output, 35% for variable inputs, 49% for food consumption, and 80% for net family income. By estimating a two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression model, this study finds that integration into output markets is positively associated with a diversification of land use away from rice monoculture, more intense contact with nearby urban centers, and a greater number of roads connecting the village to the outside world. Controlling for these factors, the distance to urban centers does not impede market integration; distant villages are equally well integrated into output markets. The study further finds that integration into output markets improves farm productivity and net per capita income. Concerns about market integration are discussed. Results have implications for Thai policy makers who have recently placed increasing emphasis on the concept of “sufficiency economy” in order to promote the well-being of rural people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of agent-based models (ABMs) for investigating land-use science questions has been increasing dramatically over the last decade. Modelers have moved from 'proofs of existence' toy models to case-specific, multi-scaled, multi-actor, and data-intensive models of land-use and land-cover change. An international workshop, titled 'Multi-Agent Modeling and Collaborative Planning - Method2Method Workshop', was held in Bonn in 2005 in order to bring together researchers using different data collection approaches to informing agent-based models. Participants identified a typology of five approaches to empirically inform ABMs for land use science: sample surveys, participant observation, field and laboratory experiments, companion modeling, and GIS and remotely sensed data. This paper reviews these five approaches to informing ABMs, provides a corresponding case study describing the model usage of these approaches, the types of data each approach produces, the types of questions those data can answer, and an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of those data for use in an ABM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research on land use and land cover change (LUCC) has put more emphasis on the importance of understanding the decision-making of human actors, especially in developing countries. The quest is now for a new generation of LUCC models with a decision-making component. This paper deals with the question of how to realistically represent decision-making in land use models. Two main agent decision architectures are compared. Heuristic agents take sequential decisions following a pre-defined decision tree, while optimizing agents take simultaneous decisions by solving a mathematical programming model. Optimizing behaviour is often discarded as being unrealistic. Yet the paper shows that optimizing agents do have important advantages for empirical land use modelling and that multi-agent systems (MAS) offer an ideal framework for using the strengths of both agent decision architectures. The use of optimization models is advanced with a novel three-stage decision model of investment, production, and consumption to represent uncertainty in models of land use decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has particularly affected the supply of perishable foods such as vegetables, which could adversely affect food and nutrition security. Here, we study the mechanisms by which COVID-19 has affected vegetable production and the coping strategies adopted by smallholder farmers. We use cross-sectional data collected through individual interviews on a random sample of 521 vegetable producers in north-western Nigeria. The perceptions of respondents, measured on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1—not affected, to 5—severely affected), shows that COVID-19 had an average effect of 3.07 (±1.23) on vegetable production. Farmers also reported challenges in accessing farm inputs and storing or selling fresh vegetable produced. In response, farmers reduced market-oriented vegetable production, produced more vegetables for own consumption, added value through own home processing and storage, explored new markets, and accepted lower farmgate selling prices. A multivariate probit regression shows that socio-economic factors such as age, household size, marital status, challenges in accessing inputs, and perceptions of the effects of COVID-19 influenced farmers' decisions to adopt particular coping strategies. To sustain vegetable supplies, policy makers should consider investing more in market-oriented strategies such as vegetable processing and storage, which individual farmers may not be able to afford due to high costs, lack of information and required knowledge on good agronomic practices, postharvest handling, storage and market. Public extension services can contribute to help farmers to adapt better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural mechanization has spread across much of Asia since the 1960s. It has increased agricultural productivity and reduced arduous farm work. However, differing impacts for smallholders and hired laborers, and for men and women, require careful consideration. This study analyzed, ex-ante, the likely social and economic tradeoffs of mechanizing the mungbean harvest in Bangladesh and Myanmar. We used a mixed methods approach combining survey data from 852 farm households with in-depth interviews in four villages. Partial budget analysis shows that mechanical harvesting of mungbean is not yet profitable for most farms. There is nevertheless an incentive to mechanize as the associated timeliness of the harvest reduces the risk of harvest losses from weather shocks. Men and women farmers expect time savings and reduced drudgery. The results confirm that hired workers depend on manual harvesting for income and status in both countries. Most hired workers are landless married women with limited access to other sources of income. In the short term, farmers are likely to combine manual harvests and a final mechanized harvest of the indeterminate crop. This could mediate the impact on hired workers. However, in the long term, it will be necessary to facilitate income-generating opportunities for women in landless rural families to maintain their well-being and income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farm mechanization can promote the economic sustainability of small farms and in the context of cereal-legume systems strengthen plant protein-based diets, which support human health and environmental sustainability. However, mechanization inevitably displaces hired laborers who depend on manual farm work for their income. Few studies have systematically analyzed the differential effects on women and men hired labor. Here, we use primarily qualitative data from Myanmar and Bangladesh to test the hypothesis that the effects of mechanizing mung bean harvesting—which is now commencing in both countries—are likely to weaken women hired workers' economic and personal empowerment. We focus on rural landless women laborers as an important part of the agricultural labor force. The results broadly confirm the hypothesis, although there is variation between the research sites. Harvesting mung beans is the only fieldwork task available to many landless women, particularly married women with children, in both countries. Gendered restrictions on women's mobility and their role as family caregivers, as well as norms about appropriate work for women and men, restrict women's options regarding alternative work both locally and further away. The effects are likely to be particularly negative in locations with minimal off-farm economic diversity and more restrictive gender norms. Overall, men across all sites will be less affected since their participation rates in harvesting and post-harvest processing are low. They are less restricted by gender norms and can travel freely to find work elsewhere. However, women and men in low asset households will find it problematic to find alternative income sources. Less restrictive gender norms would help to mitigate the adverse effects of farm mechanization. It is important to invest in gender transformative approaches to stimulate change in norms and associated behaviors to make a wider range of choices possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mission of the World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) is research and development to realize the potential of vegetables for healthier lives and more resilient livelihoods. WorldVeg operates across Asia and Africa, and its breeding portfolio comprises global as well as traditional vegetables. Cucurbit crops make an important contribution to global food and nutrition security and are economically important to smallholder farmers in Asia, who account for 83% of global cucurbit production. The global cucurbit breeding program of WorldVeg focuses on four species: bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), tropical pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata), ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula), and sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica syn. L. aegyptiaca). Improved cultivars have been developed by the private seed industry, however, repeated recycling of lines derived from elite hybrids has narrowed the genetic base and reduced genetic gains for yield and other key traits. This trend will continue unless a concerted effort is made to introduce new genetic variability into elite hybrids. WorldVeg has organized a breeding consortium with seed companies to facilitate access to the Center's new breeding lines derived from hitherto unexploited landraces to develop genetically diverse, improved cucurbit cultivars with enhanced yield and resistance to major diseases. Through this partnership, WorldVeg presents its improved lines and F1 hybrids at Crop Field Days for selection by private seed industry staff engaged in breeding, product development, and sales and marketing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mungbean (Vigna radiata (L). Wilczek) is a hardy early-maturing legume that can be used as a catch crop in the wheat and rice systems of South and Central Asia. To facilitate increased production, this study surveyed 345 mungbean growers and 336 non-growers in areas of Pakistan and Uzbekistan where there is potential for expansion. Low seed quality, low farmer awareness of the effect of mungbean on soil fertility, and high labor costs are identified as common constraints. In Pakistan, pests and diseases are a major constraint while low market demand is particularly a problem for farmers in Uzbekistan. Farm households were found to have little knowledge of the health benefits from mungbean consumption. It is therefore a priority to give farmers access to quality seed of improved varieties and to combine this with value chain development in Uzbekistan while promoting the benefits of mungbean to soil quality, incomes and human nutrition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]