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Objective: Adolescent girls are at risk of anaemia due to increased nutrient demands because of growth, menstrual blood loss and possible pregnancies. Sociocultural and household conditions influence their anaemia risk. We aimed to identify the sociocultural and economic factors associated with anaemia among adolescent girls in Nepal. Design: The Nepal Demographic and Health Surveys (NDHS) conducted in 2006, 2011 and 2016 were pooled for secondary analysis. We used data on haemoglobin measurements for anaemia and conducted bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses to identify factors associated with anaemia. Setting: Nationally representative NDHS households with adolescent girls 15–19 years of age. Participants: Non-pregnant adolescent girls 15–19 years, with a haemoglobin measurement (n = 3731). Results: The overall prevalence of anaemia among adolescent girls was 39·6 %. Adolescents from socially disadvantaged caste/ethnicity groups were 1·42 times (95 % CI: 1·13, 1·78) more likely to have anaemia compared with those from Brahmin/Chhetri households. We found a counter-intuitive association between socio-economic status and anaemia where adolescents from the middle (adjusted OR (aOR) 1·37, 95 % CI: 1·01, 1·85) and highest (aOR 1·74, 95 % CI: 1·18, 2·56) quintiles were at increased odds of anaemia. Relative geographical inequality was observed where adolescents from the Terai region had 3·5 times (95 % CI: 2·32, 5·33) higher odds of anaemia. Conclusions: The disparities in the distribution of anaemia among adolescents by caste/ethnicity groups, wealth quintiles and geographical regions are evident. Reducing the anaemia burden will require addressing the social determinants of anaemia by allocating resources and expanding anaemia prevention programmes to target adolescents at higher risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Child feeding practices during the first two years of life are crucial to ensure good health and nutrition status. This study aimed to assess the factors influencing inappropriate child feeding practices in children aged 6 − 23 months in families receiving nutrition allowance in the remote Mugu district, Nepal. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 318 mothers who had children aged 6 − 23 months of age in the seven randomly selected wards. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select the desired number of respondents. Data were collected using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression was used to estimate crude odds ratio (cOR), and adjusted odds ratio (aOR), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to understand factor associated with child feeding practices. Results: Almost half of the children aged 6 − 23 months were not consuming a diverse diet (47.2%; 95% CI: 41.7%, 52.7%), did not meet the recommended minimum meal frequency (46.9%; 95% CI: 41.4%, 52.4%) and did not consume minimum acceptable diet (51.7%; 95% CI: 46.1%, 57.1%). Only 27.4% (95% CI: 22.7%, 32.5%) of children met the recommended complementary feeding practices. Multivariable analysis showed maternal characteristics such as mothers who gave birth at home (aOR = 4.70; 95% CI: 1.03, 21.31) and mothers in unpaid employment (aOR = 2.56; 95% CI: 1.06, 6.19) were associated with increased odds of inappropriate child feeding practices. Household economy (i.e. family with < 150 USD monthly income) was also associated with increased odds of inappropriate child feeding practices (aOR = 1.19; 95% CI: 1.05, 2.42). Conclusion: Despite the receipt of nutritional allowances, child feeding practices among 6 − 23 months children were not optimal. Additional context-specific behavior change strategies on child nutrition targeting mothers may be required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Perception is the way something is regarded/understood. It is mainly created by two factors; one is physiological and another is psychological characteristics of the human being. Thus, perception is not only physiological process that is what one sees with the eyes it is a much more complex process involving psychological process too, by which any person selectively assimilates and gives meaning to the stimuli in the environment. It is subjective process, thatis why different people perceive the same stimuli in different manner. The current study aimed to study the factors affecting perception of farm families towards farming as an occupation. Methods: The present study was conducted to ascertain the factors affecting perception of farm families towards farming as an occupation. The results are based on the perspective of different researchers. Result: There were six major factorsidentified namely economic, socio-cultural, physical, personal, psychological and push and pull factors affecting perception. The economic factors comprised of variables like income, cost of agricultural production and vicious cycle of debt and loan in farming and socio-cultural factors had variables like professional and social status of farming along with family influence affecting children occupational choice. Personal factors consisted of personal interest and satisfaction of farmers derived from farming while physical factors included hard work and lack of resources along with hazardous working conditions in farming. Stress prevalent among farmers and satisfaction of farmers either with farming income or its status and risk associated with farming as a profession were studied under psychological factors. Push and pull factors comprised the reasons of farm families attracting towards urban areas for achieving better employment avenues and higher social status and prestige associated with other occupations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Nepal, the prevalence of anaemia decreased by 1% from 2006 to 2011 but increased by 6% from 2011 to 2016. In this study, we examined the changes in prevalence by possible factors from 2006 to 2016 along with the factors associated with anaemia among women of reproductive age (15–49 years) using the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) data from years 2006, 2011 and 2016. We used rate of change analysis to explore average annual rate of change (AARC) in anaemia prevalence and concentration curves and indices to assess unequal distribution of anaemia prevalence among socio‐economic quintiles. Multilevel regression was performed to examine the association of multilevel factors with anaemia. Our results showed higher AARC increase in anaemia prevalence from 2006 to 2016, among women aged 30–39 years, with secondary or higher education, who had two or fewer children, not working women, from higher wealth quintiles and who were overweight or obese. Shifting of concentration curve from 'above the line of equality' in 2006 and 2011 to 'under the line of equality' in 2016 was observed. Women aged 20–29 years, with more than four children, who underwent female sterilization, had experienced violence and from Provinces 1, 2 and 5 were at higher risk of anaemia. Overweight and obese women using hormonal contraception and from lowest wealth quintiles were at lower risk. The change in trends and the associated multilevel factors identified should be considered in designing multilevel interventions that particularly target women at risk for sustainable anaemia reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To explore the perceptions, enablers and barriers to employees’ healthy eating in a hospital site. Design A qualitative study including focus group discussion and in-depth interview, data were analysed using thematic analysis method. Setting The study was carried out among employees of Dhulikhel Hospital-Kathmandu University Hospital, located about 30 km east of Nepal's capital Kathmandu. Participants Focus group discussions were conducted among the 33 participants, who were divided into four groups: (a) support staff (drivers, cook, laundry, gardeners and ward boys), (b) hospital administrators and managers, (c) health personnel (doctors, nurses and assistants) who work 8–12 hours shifts and (d) health personnel who work during office hours. Nine in-depth interviews were conducted among six canteen operators and three managers. Results The major factors for promoting healthy eating were identified as the availability of affordable healthy food options in the cafeterias, a commitment to such promotion by the cafeteria manager, operators, staff and hospital administration and the level of education of the employees. The most commonly reported barriers for healthy eating were the unavailability of healthy options, including the lack of food supply from local market, the higher cost of healthy foods, individual food preferences and limited human resources in the cafeteria. Conclusion The availability of affordable healthy foods, supply of healthy foods from the market, commitment from cafeteria managers, hospital administrators and health awareness among cafeteria operators may promote healthy eating among employees in a Nepali hospital setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent in Nepal where starchy foods constitute a large proportion of diets and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods is inadequate. We conducted a study to determine whether rice would be an appropriate vehicle for micronutrient fortification in Nepal. Materials and methods: In Bajura in remote rural Nepal, we conducted a household survey to characterize rice intakes in 195 households, and a double-blinded acceptability test with 177 social safety net rice consumers ≥18 years of age. Of these, 168 tasted fortified and unfortified rice to assess whether respondents could differentiate between fortified and non-fortified rice and their sensory properties. Rice was fortified by blending hot extruded kernels containing 6 micronutrients together with non-fortified rice at a 1:99 ratio. We used binomial tests to assess whether participants could correctly differentiate fortified rice, from non-fortified rice and paired t-tests to compare scores for sensory qualities of cooked fortified and non-fortified rice. We used multiple regression to test associations between per capita consumption and age, gender, wealth and food security. Results: Per capita consumption of rice (median 216g/day, IQR 144.0, 288.0) did not vary by wealth but was +52.08g, (95% CI 10.43, 93.72) higher amongst moderately to severely food insecure households compared with food secure / mildly food insecure. Most respondents could not differentiate fortified rice from non-fortified rice: 37.5% identified uncooked fortified rice and 39.3% cooked rice, which was not different from the 33% expected by chance (p = 0.22 and p = 0.09 respectively). The sensory qualities of fortified rice were acceptable (scoring 3.9 out of 5) and did not differ from non-fortified rice (p>0.05). Conclusion: A rice fortification programme implemented through the Nepal Food Corporation’s social safety nets has potential because purchase and consumption of rice is high and fortified rice is acceptable among consumers in remote food insecure areas of Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Understanding socio-economic correlates and inequality of underweight and overweight is crucial to develop interventions to prevent adverse health outcomes. Materials and methods: We analysed Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2016 data from 6,069 women aged 15–49 years. WHO cut-offs for Body Mass Index categorised as: underweight (<18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5kg/m2 to 24.9kg/m2) and overweight/ obesity (> = 25.0 kg/m2) were used. We used multinomial logistic regression to explore associations of factors with Body Mass Index and concentration indices to estimate socio-economic inequalities. Results: Higher risk of underweight was found in age group 15–19 (RRR 3.08, 95% CI: 2.29–4.15), 20–29 (RRR 1.64, 95% CI: 1.29–2.08) and in lowest (RRR 1.60, 95% CI: 1.03–2.47) and second wealth quintiles (RRR 1.77 (95% CI: 1.18–2.64). Education, occupation, urban/rural residence and food security were not associated with underweight (p>0.05). Lower risk of overweight/obesity was found in age group 15–19 (RRR 0.07, 95% CI: 0.05–0.10), 20–29 (RRR 0.40, 95% CI: 0.32–0.51), in manual occupation (RRR 0.58, 95% CI: 0.46–0.74) and in lower quintiles. Women with primary (RRR 1.91, 95% CI: 1.36–2.67), secondary education (RRR 1.42, 95% CI 1.00, 2.01) were at increased risk of overweight/obesity. Household food security and urban/rural residence were not associated with overweight/obesity (p>0.05). Socioeconomic inequalities were detected, with overweight/obesity strongly concentrated (concentration index: 0.380) amongst the higher quintiles and underweight concentrated (concentration index: -0.052) amongst the poorest. Conclusion: Nutrition programmes should target younger and poor women to address undernutrition and higher wealth group women to address overnutrition. Equity based nutrition interventions improving socio-economic status of poor households may benefit undernourished women. Interventions to encourage physical activity as women age and among wealthier women as well as healthy eating for prevention of under- and over-nutrition are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In Nepal, since 2004, 19,388 people living with HIV (PLHIV) have been enrolled on antiretroviral therapy (ART). The aim of this study was to measure mortality rate and to identify predictors of mortality in adult (≥15 years) PLHIV who initiated ART between 2004 and 2013 in five large ART centers of Nepal. Methods: This retrospective cohort study of 3,799 (60.5% male) adult PLHIV uses secondary data collected from standard ART registers. Time from ART initiation (baseline) to death or censoring (loss to follow-up or December 31, 2013) was assessed. Mortality rates per 100 person-years were calculated. Kaplan-Meier models were used to estimate the probability of mortality over time. Predictors of mortality were determined using Cox-regression models. Results: The overall mortality rate was 6.98 (95% CI: 6.46–7.54) per 100 person-years, 4.11 (95% CI: 3.53–4.79) in females and 9.14 (95% CI: 8.36–9.99) in males. Mortality rates were higher in early months after ART initiation, particularly in the first three months. Baseline predictors of mortality were ART center, male gender (adjusted HR = 2.08, 95% CI: 1.69–2.57), residence outside the ART district (AHR = 1.45, 95% CI:1.19–1.76), World Health Organization clinical stage III (AHR = 1.67, 95% CI: 1.13–2.46) and IV (AHR = 2.21, 95% CI: 1.45–3.36), bedridden <50% time in the last month (AHR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.52–2.41), bedridden >50% time in the last month (AHR = 3.82, 95% CI: 2.95–4.94), lower bodyweight/kg (AHR = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03–1.05), CD4 count <150 cell/mm3 (AHR = 2.14, 95% CI: 1.05–4.34) and treatment not switched to second-line regimen (AHR = 3.05, 95% CI: 1.35–6.90). Conclusions: Mortality rates were higher soon after ART initiation, particularly in males and gradually decreased over time. Poor baseline clinical characteristics were significantly associated with higher mortality. Increased ART coverage with decentralization of sites to lower levels including community dispensing, differentiated and improved service delivery and initiation of ART at a less advanced disease stage may reduce early mortality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Undernutrition during pregnancy leads to low birthweight, poor growth and inter-generational undernutrition. We did a non-blinded cluster-randomised controlled trial in the plains districts of Dhanusha and Mahottari, Nepal to assess the impact on birthweight and weight-for-age z-scores among children aged 0–16 months of community-based participatory learning and action (PLA) women’s groups, with and without food or cash transfers to pregnant women. Methods: We randomly allocated 20 clusters per arm to four arms (average population/cluster = 6150). All consenting married women aged 10–49 years, who had not had tubal ligation and whose husbands had not had vasectomy, were monitored for missed menses. Between 29 Dec 2013 and 28 Feb 2015 we recruited 25,092 pregnant women to surveillance and interventions: PLA alone (n = 5626); PLA plus food (10 kg/month of fortified wheat-soya ‘Super Cereal’, n = 6884); PLA plus cash (NPR750≈US$7.5/month, n = 7272); control (existing government programmes, n = 5310). 539 PLA groups discussed and implemented strategies to improve low birthweight, nutrition in pregnancy and hand washing. Primary outcomes were birthweight within 72 hours of delivery and weight-for-age z-scores at endline (age 0–16 months). Only children born to permanent residents between 4 June 2014 and 20 June 2015 were eligible for intention to treat analyses (n = 10936), while in-migrating women and children born before interventions had been running for 16 weeks were excluded. Trial status: completed. Results: In PLA plus food/cash arms, 94–97% of pregnant women attended groups and received a mean of four transfers over their pregnancies. In the PLA only arm, 49% of pregnant women attended groups. Due to unrest, the response rate for birthweight was low at 22% (n = 2087), but response rate for endline nutritional and dietary measures exceeded 83% (n = 9242). Compared to the control arm (n = 464), mean birthweight was significantly higher in the PLA plus food arm by 78·0 g (95% CI 13·9, 142·0; n = 626) and not significantly higher in PLA only and PLA plus cash arms by 28·9 g (95% CI -37·7, 95·4; n = 488) and 50·5 g (95% CI -15·0, 116·1; n = 509) respectively. Mean weight-for-age z-scores of children aged 0–16 months (average age 9 months) sampled cross-sectionally at endpoint, were not significantly different from those in the control arm (n = 2091). Differences in weight for-age z-score were as follows: PLA only -0·026 (95% CI -0·117, 0·065; n = 2095); PLA plus cash -0·045 (95% CI -0·133, 0·044; n = 2545); PLA plus food -0·033 (95% CI -0·121, 0·056; n = 2507). Amongst many secondary outcomes tested, compared with control, more institutional deliveries (OR: 1.46 95% CI 1.03, 2.06; n = 2651) and less colostrum discarding (OR:0.71 95% CI 0.54, 0.93; n = 2548) were found in the PLA plus food arm but not in PLA alone or in PLA plus cash arms. Interpretation: Food supplements in pregnancy with PLA women’s groups increased birthweight more than PLA plus cash or PLA alone but differences were not sustained. Nutrition interventions throughout the thousand-day period are recommended. Trial registration: . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low birth weight (LBW, < 2500 g) affects one third of newborn infants in rural south Asia and compromises child survival, infant growth, educational performance and economic prospects. We aimed to assess the impact on birth weight and weight-for-age Z-score in children aged 0-16 months of a nutrition Participatory Learning and Action behaviour change strategy (PLA) for pregnant women through women's groups, with or without unconditional transfers of food or cash to pregnant women in two districts of southern Nepal. Methods: The study is a cluster randomised controlled trial (non-blinded). PLA comprises women's groups that discuss, and form strategies about, nutrition in pregnancy, low birth weight and hygiene. Women receive up to 7 monthly transfers per pregnancy: cash is NPR 750 (~US$7) and food is 10 kg of fortified sweetened wheat-soya Super Cereal per month. The unit of randomisation is a rural village development committee (VDC) cluster (population 4000-9200, mean 6150) in southern Dhanusha or Mahottari districts. 80 VDCs are randomised to four arms using a participatory 'tombola' method. Twenty clusters each receive: PLA; PLA plus food; PLA plus cash; and standard care (control). Participants are (mostly Maithili-speaking) pregnant women identified from 8 weeks' gestation onwards, and their infants (target sample size 8880 birth weights). After pregnancy verification, mothers may be followed up in early and late pregnancy, within 72 h, after 42 days and within 22 months of birth. Outcomes pertain to the individual level. Primary outcomes include birth weight within 72 h of birth and infant weight-for-age Z-score measured cross-sectionally on children born of the study. Secondary outcomes include prevalence of LBW, eating behaviour and weight during pregnancy, maternal and newborn illness, preterm delivery, miscarriage, stillbirth or neonatal mortality, infant Z-scores for length-for-age and weight-for-length, head circumference, and postnatal maternal BMI and mid-upper arm circumference. Exposure to women's groups, food or cash transfers, home visits, and group interventions are measured. Discussion: Determining the relative importance to birth weight and early childhood nutrition of adding food or cash transfers to PLA women's groups will inform design of nutrition interventions in pregnancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing availability and capabilities of mobile phones make them a feasible means of data collection. Electronic Data Capture (EDC) systems have been used widely for public health monitoring and surveillance activities, but documentation of their use in complicated research studies requiring multiple systems is limited. This paper shares our experiences of designing and implementing a complex multi-component EDC system for a community-based four-armed cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial in the rural plains of Nepal, to help other researchers planning to use EDC for complex studies in low-income settings. We designed and implemented three interrelated mobile phone data collection systems to enrol and follow-up pregnant women (trial participants), and to support the implementation of trial interventions (women’s groups, food and cash transfers). 720 field staff used basic phones to send simple coded text messages, 539 women’s group facilitators used Android smartphones with Open Data Kit Collect, and 112 Interviewers, Coordinators and Supervisors used smartphones with CommCare. Barcoded photo ID cards encoded with participant information were generated for each enrolled woman. Automated systems were developed to download, recode and merge data for nearly real-time access by researchers. The systems were successfully rolled out and used by 1371 staff. A total of 25,089 pregnant women were enrolled, and 17,839 follow-up forms completed. Women’s group facilitators recorded 5717 women’s groups and the distribution of 14,647 food and 13,482 cash transfers. Using EDC sped up data collection and processing, although time needed for programming and set-up delayed the study inception. EDC using three interlinked mobile data management systems (FrontlineSMS, ODK and CommCare) was a feasible and effective method of data capture in a complex large-scale trial in the plains of Nepal. Despite challenges including prolonged set-up times, the systems met multiple data collection needs for users with varying levels of literacy and experience. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Low birth weight (LBW, < 2500 g) affects one third of newborn infants in rural south Asia and compromises child survival, infant growth, educational performance and economic prospects. We aimed to assess the impact on birth weight and weight-for-age Z-score in children aged 0-16 months of a nutrition Participatory Learning and Action behaviour change strategy (PLA) for pregnant women through women's groups, with or without unconditional transfers of food or cash to pregnant women in two districts of southern Nepal.Methods: The study is a cluster randomised controlled trial (non-blinded). PLA comprises women's groups that discuss, and form strategies about, nutrition in pregnancy, low birth weight and hygiene. Women receive up to 7 monthly transfers per pregnancy: cash is NPR 750 (~US$7) and food is 10 kg of fortified sweetened wheat-soya Super Cereal per month. The unit of randomisation is a rural village development committee (VDC) cluster (population 4000-9200, mean 6150) in southern Dhanusha or Mahottari districts. 80 VDCs are randomised to four arms using a participatory 'tombola' method. Twenty clusters each receive: PLA; PLA plus food; PLA plus cash; and standard care (control). Participants are (mostly Maithili-speaking) pregnant women identified from 8 weeks' gestation onwards, and their infants (target sample size 8880 birth weights). After pregnancy verification, mothers may be followed up in early and late pregnancy, within 72 h, after 42 days and within 22 months of birth. Outcomes pertain to the individual level. Primary outcomes include birth weight within 72 h of birth and infant weight-for-age Z-score measured cross-sectionally on children born of the study. Secondary outcomes include prevalence of LBW, eating behaviour and weight during pregnancy, maternal and newborn illness, preterm delivery, miscarriage, stillbirth or neonatal mortality, infant Z-scores for length-for-age and weight-for-length, head circumference, and postnatal maternal BMI and mid-upper arm circumference. Exposure to women's groups, food or cash transfers, home visits, and group interventions are measured.Discussion: Determining the relative importance to birth weight and early childhood nutrition of adding food or cash transfers to PLA women's groups will inform design of nutrition interventions in pregnancy.Trial Registration: ISRCTN75964374 , 12 Jul 2013. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]