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1. Prey may trade off resource acquisition with mortality risk by using various habitat selection strategies. Empirical assessments have shown that the functional and numerical responses of predators to human disturbances are variable, yet spatial changes in predation risk by two predators have seldom been studied for prey occurring in human-modified landscapes. Using the boreal caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou - grey wolf Canis lupus - black bear Ursus americanus system in eastern Canada, we investigated whether responses of prey towards one predator could concomitantly increase risk of predation from another predator exhibiting a different foraging tactic. 2. We investigated trade-offs made by solitary caribou females and mothers accompanied by their calf during the period of highest calf vulnerability and compared the behaviour of mothers that would eventually lose their calf to predation to that of mothers whose calf survived until the following year. We modelled habitat selection using different metrics of forage based on field measurements and digital maps and developed empirical models of predation risk and prey behaviour using GPS data collected on both predators and prey. 3. Mothers accompanied by their calf seemed to compromise foraging opportunities for safety, as opposed to solitary females who showed no particular avoidance of areas used by predators. Although caribou mothers adopted selection strategies that could have protected their offspring from wolves, females that eventually lost their calf to predation selected for vegetative associations that were favourable to bears. 4. Synthesis and applications. We determined that mothers that most strongly avoided suitable wolf habitat were also those that most strongly selected suitable bear habitat, suggesting that by using antipredator strategies aimed at reducing predation risk from wolves, caribou exposed their offspring to increased predation risk from bears. This result is of paramount conservation value as bears were responsible for 94% of caribou calf kills in this system. In the short term, conservation efforts for boreal caribou may benefit from the management of bear populations by means of liberal hunting regulations or predator control. In the long term, however, these actions should be used in conjunction with the protection of potential calving areas away from cutblocks and roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological theory predicts that the intensity of antipredator responses is dependent upon the spatiotemporal context of predation risk (the risk allocation hypothesis). However, most studies to date have been conducted over small spatial extents, and did not fully take into account gradual responses to predator proximity. We simultaneously collected spatially explicit data on predator and prey to investigate acute responses of a threatened forest ungulate, the boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus), to the spatiotemporal dynamics of wolf (Canis lupus) distribution during spring. Movement analysis of GPS-collared individuals from both species revealed high plasticity in habitat-selection decisions of caribou. Female caribou avoided open areas and deciduous forests and moved relatively fast and toward foraging areas when wolves were closer than 2.5 km. Caribou also avoided food-rich areas only when wolves were within 1 km. Our results bridge the gap between long-term perceived risk and immediate flight responses by revealing dynamic antipredator tactics in response to predator proximity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic disturbances have been demonstrated to affect animal behavior, distribution, and abundance, but assessment of their impacts on fitness-related traits has received little attention. We hypothesized that human activities and infrastructure cause a decrease in the individual performance of preys because of anthropogenically enhanced predation risk. We evaluated the impacts of commercial logging and road networks on the fitness of a large herbivore known to be sensitive to human disturbance: the forest-dwelling woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). For 8 consecutive years (2004–2011) we monitored 59 individuals using GPS telemetry in the Charlevoix region of Québec, Canada. We also used Very High Frequency telemetry locations collected on 28 individuals from 1999–2000. We related habitat selection of adult caribou at various spatio-temporal scales to their probability of dying from predation, and to indices of their reproductive success and energy expenditure. The probability that adult caribou died from predation increased with the proportion of recent disturbances (including cutblocks ≤5 years old) in their annual home range. The respective effects of increasing paved and forestry road densities depended upon the overall road density within the home range of caribou. At a finer scale of 10 to 15 days before their death, caribou that were killed by a predator selected for recent disturbances more than individuals that survived, and avoided old mature conifer stands. The home range area of caribou increased with road density. Finally, the composition of the home range of females had no effect on their reproductive success. We show that human activities and infrastructure may influence the individual performance of large prey species in highly managed regions. We outline the need to consider the full set of impacts that human development may have on threatened animal populations, with particular emphasis on predator-prey relationships and population dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species interactions within food webs are driven by multiple constraints, including those imposed by seasonal changes in the environment. Ecologically sound definitions of seasons may therefore be a prerequisite for clarifying predator prey interactions. Most studies define biological seasons based on fixed schedules or on temporal changes in a single movement measurement. We used a novel clustering approach based on homogeneous space-use patterns of GPS-collared animals to reveal 7 biological seasons for caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou, and 5 for both moose Alces alces and grey wolves Canis lupus interacting in a boreal ecosystem. Subsequent evaluation of niche overlap showed that, as predicted, wolves had a stronger spatio-temporal connection with moose, its main prey, than with caribou. Movement constraints and limiting resource distributions similarly affected all species in some instances, but also caused temporal changes in the extent of niche overlap between wolves and its two prey. The risk that caribou faced was not only linked to the niche overlap with wolves, but also to the extent of wolf-moose niche overlap during the same period. Food-web properties emerged from the analysis, with temporal changes in relative niche overlap reflecting the strength of trophic interactions during the year. Our study demonstrates how the study of trophic interactions can benefit from comprehensive definitions of biological seasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A species may modify its relative habitat use with changing availability, generating functional responses in habitat selection. Functional responses in habitat selection are expected to occur when animals experience trade-offs influencing their habitat selection, but only a few studies to date have explicitly linked functional responses to the underlying trade-offs faced by the animals. We used data from 39 female moose fitted with GPS telemetry collars in two nearby study areas in Canada to investigate if moose (1) were faced with a food/cover trade-off in habitat selection, as typically acknowledged in the literature, and (2) showed a functional response in their use of food/cover-rich habitats. We also examined how habitat selection patterns varied seasonally, and between study areas. The occurrence of functional responses varied strongly between study areas, and could not always be related to a measurable food/cover trade-off. Functional responses were observed more often in the study area where the environmental conditions were more severe (colder temperatures, higher precipitations, and lower food availability). Selection coefficients were also less variable among individuals in that study area, suggesting that severe environmental conditions may constrain individuals to a few selection tactics and promote the development of functional responses. Moose reacted to the availability of different habitat types in different seasons, reflecting the changing trade-offs faced by the animals. We found considerable behavioral differences between individuals from two adjacent study areas, and therefore recommend caution when extrapolating habitat selection results. We advocate for the wider use of functional responses to identify critical habitats for a species from a management or conservation perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of anthropogenic disturbance on the fitness of prey should depend on the relative effect of human activities on different trophic levels. This verification remains rare, however, especially for large animals. We investigated the functional link between habitat selection of female caribou (Rangifer tarandus) and the survival of their calves, a fitness correlate. This top-down controlled population of the threatened forest-dwelling caribou inhabits a managed forest occupied by wolves (Canis lupus) and black bears (Ursus americanus). Sixty-one per cent of calves died from bear predation within two months following their birth. Variation in habitat selection tactics among mothers resulted in different mortality risks for their calves. When calves occupied areas with few deciduous trees, they were more likely to die from predation if the local road density was high. Although caribou are typically associated with pristine forests, females selected recent cutovers without negative impact on calf survival. This selection became detrimental, however, as regeneration took place in harvested stands owing to increased bear predation. We demonstrate that human disturbance has asymmetrical consequences on the trophic levels of a food web involving multiple large mammals, which resulted in habitat selection tactics with a greater short-term fitness payoff and, therefore, with higher evolutionary opportunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Logging negatively affects the threatened forest-dwelling caribou ( Rangifer tarandus caribou) through its positive effects on large predator populations. As recruitment is a key component of caribou population growth rate, we assessed calving rates of females and calf survival rates during the most critical period for calf survival, the calving period. We also identified causes of calf mortality and investigated the influence of predation risk, food availability, and human disturbance on habitat selection of females during the calving period at both the home-range and forest stand scales. We hypothesized that caribou should display habitat selection patterns to reduce predation risk at both scales. Using telemetry, we followed 22 females and their calves from 2004 to 2007 in a highly managed study area in Québec, Canada. Most females (78.5 ± 0.05 [SE]) gave birth each year, but only 46.3 ± 8.0% of the calves survived during the first 50 days following birth, and 57.3 ± 14.9% of them died from black bear ( Ursus americanus) predation. At the home-range scale, caribou selected calving areas located at upper slope positions and avoided high road density areas. Surprisingly, they also selected the forested habitat type having the lowest lateral cover (mixed and deciduous stands) while avoiding the highest cover (regenerating conifer stands). At the forest stand scale, caribou selected areas located at relatively high elevations and with a lower basal area of black spruce trees. The selection of upper slope positions likely favored spatial segregation between calving females and wolves ( Canis lupus) but not black bear. Our results suggest that calving females used areas from which they could visually detect approaching predators. While wolf avoidance appeared to be effective in a highly managed landscape, caribou did not appear to have adjusted their predator avoidance strategy to the recent increase in black bear abundance, who have benefited from increased food abundance. This situation requires focused attention from wildlife managers as logging activities are progressing towards the north within the core of forest-dwelling caribou range. © 2011 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts in isolating the relative effects of resources and disturbances on animal-distribution patterns remain hindered by the difficulty of accounting for multiple scales of resource selection by animals with seasonally dynamic drivers. We developed multi-scale, seasonal models to explore how local resource selection by the threatened forest-dwelling woodland caribou ( Rangifer tarandus caribou) was influenced by both broad-scale landscape context and local resource heterogeneity in the intensively managed region of Charlevoix, Québec, Canada, located on the southern border of the North American caribou range. We estimated resource selection functions using 23 GPS-collared caribou monitored from 2004 to 2006 and landscape data on vegetation classes, terrain conditions, and roads. We found evidence of thresholds in road 'proximity' effects (up to 1.25 km), which underscores the importance of including landscape context variables in addition to locally measured variables, and of fitting seasonal-specific models given temporal variation in the magnitude of selection and optimal scale of measurement. Open lichen woodlands were an important cover type for caribou during winter and spring, whereas deciduous forests, wetlands, and even young disturbed stands became important during calving and summer. Caribou consistently avoided roads and rugged terrain conditions at both local and landscape levels. Landscape context fundamentally constrains the choices available to animals, and we showed that failing to consider landscape context, or arbitrarily choosing an inappropriate scale for measuring covariates, may provide biased inferences with respect to habitat selection patterns. Effective habitat management for rare or declining species should carefully consider the hierarchical nature of habitat selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Omnivores feed on animals with dynamic distributions and on plants with static distributions. The search tactics they adopt will not only define the risk for the targeted prey, but also for other prey that may be consumed when encountered. The potential impact of omnivores on the dynamics of multi-prey systems thus depends on resource selection and on the tactics used to find their prey. We present an approach that can clarify the foraging decisions of omnivores by combining analyses of habitat selection, local residency time, and interpatch movements. We use this framework to evaluate whether predation by omnivorous black bears on ungulate neonates resulted from an active search or from incidental encounters. We monitored 12 bears, 22 forest-dwelling caribou, and 36 moose during calving seasons. We estimated the spatial patterns in relative occurrence probability of ungulate neonates using Resource Selection Functions (RSFs). We also mapped plant abundance from vegetation surveys. RSF were then built to assess the link between bear distribution and the distribution of these three food types (vegetation, moose calves, caribou fawns). We further evaluated the search tactic used by bears that led to this spatial dependency by exploring patterns of residency times and interpatch movements. Bears did not select areas with a high probability of encounter with neonates, but selected areas with abundant vegetation. Surprisingly, bears displayed shorter residency times in vegetation-rich areas. The selection for vegetation-rich areas was therefore achieved by moving preferentially, but frequently, between areas offering abundant vegetation. Such frequent interpatch movements could result in high rates of fortuitous encounters with neonates, even if bears are not actively searching for them. To mitigate the impacts of forest harvesting on threatened caribou populations, vegetation-rich areas selected by bears (e.g. roadsides) should be segregated from large patches of mature conifer forest suitable for caribou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Controlled feeding experiments can provide valuable insights into food selection of herbivores. We conducted cafeteria trials on captive yearling white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) during 2 years to determine feeding preferences in relation to plant chemical constituents, i.e., nitrogen and fibers. We simultaneously offered 8 species of cultivated and wild plants in monthly foraging trials conducted from June to October.We predicted that species preferences would be positively related to protein content from June to August and to digestible energy in September and October. As predicted, crude protein (CP) was positively related to feeding preferences, particularly as summer progressed. Feeding preferences were also negatively related to fiber content, especially in early summer. Our results indicate high protein needs over the complete growing season for yearling deer but a decrease in overall plant selectivity as summer progresses. Our results also suggest that deer browsing on cultivated plants might be due to higher CP content of cultivated plants than wild plants. To prevent deer impact on crops, managers should favor regeneration of plants rich in CP content in forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial lichens are an important part of the winter diet of forest-dwelling caribou (Rangifer taranduscaribou (Gmelin, 1788)), and developing forest management guidelines to support high lichen biomass could enhance both individual- and population-level health of this threatened species. Our objective was to develop an index to assess terrestrial lichen biomass available to caribou at the landscape scale using ecoforest maps based on forest characteristics (age, density, and height) and geographical variables (slope, altitude, and latitude). We sampled 439 sites within 8340 km2 of the spruce-moss domain located >100 km north of the Saguenay River (Quebec, Canada). Since they are known to support terrestrial lichen, we sampled only spruce-dominated stands older than 50 years, representing 41.8% of the study area. Using a two-step approach, we first modeled lichen occurrence and thereafter lichen biomass in sites where lichens were found. Lichen occurrence was positively correlated with latitude but negatively with stand age, height, and density. Lichen biomass was primarily a function of altitude and tree density. Using this index could prioritize conservation of areas that are most likely to contain high lichen biomass, thus favoring caribou population maintenance in logged landscapes. Les lichens terricoles représentent une part importante de l'alimentation hivernale du caribou forestier (Rangifer taranduscaribou (Gmelin, 1788)) et l'élaboration de lignes directrices susceptibles de favoriser la conservation des peuplements forestiers comportant une grande biomasse de lichens pourrait favoriser le maintien de cette espèce menacée. Notre objectif était donc de développer un indice permettant d'estimer la biomasse de lichens terricoles disponibles pour le caribou à l'échelle du paysage, à partir de la carte écoforestière, en se basant sur des caractéristiques des peuplements (âge, densité et hauteur) et des variables géographiques (pente, altitude et latitude). Pour ce faire, nous avons échantillonné 439 sites dans une aire de 8 340 km2 localisée >100 km au nord de la rivière Saguenay (Québec, Canada) dans le domaine de la pessière à mousse de l'Est. tant reconnus pour supporter des lichens terricoles, seuls les peuplements de plus de 50 ans d'âge dont l'épinette était l'essence dominante ont été échantillonnés, ce type de peuplement représentant 41,8 % de l'aire d'étude. À l'aide d'une approche en deux étapes, nous avons en premier lieu modélisé l'occurrence puis ensuite la biomasse de lichens dans les sites où des lichens ont été retrouvés. L'occurrence de lichens était positivement corrélée à la latitude et négativement à l'âge, la hauteur et la densité du peuplement. La biomasse de lichens était quant à elle fonction de l'altitude et de la densité des tiges. Un tel indice permettra de conserver de façon prioritaire les superficies forestières qui sont le plus susceptibles de contenir une grande biomasse de lichens, favorisant ainsi le maintien du caribou dans les paysages exploités. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding animal movements across heterogeneous landscapes is of great interest because it helps explain the dynamic processes influencing the distribution of individuals in space. Research on how animals move relative to short-range environmental characteristics are scarce. Our objective was to determine the variables influencing movement of a large ungulate, the moose Alces alces, ranging across a boreal landscape, and to link movement behaviour with limiting factors at a fine scale. We assessed 7 candidate models composed of vegetation, solar energy, and topography variables using step selection functions (SSF) for male and female moose across daily and annual periods. We selected and weighted models using the Bayesian Information Criterion. Variables influencing small-scale movements of moose differed among periods and between sexes, likely in response to corresponding changes in the importance of limiting factors. Best models often combined many types of variables, although simpler models composed of only vegetation or topography variables explained male's movements during rut and early winter. Moose steps were observed in good feeding stands from summer to early winter for females and from spring to early winter for males, supporting other studies of moose habitat selection. From summer to early winter, females alternatively selected and avoided cover stands during day and night, respectively. Solar energy reaching the ground was important, particularly during late winter and spring, likely due to its effect on snow cover, air temperature, or plant phenology. Moose generally moved in gentle slopes and variable elevation, which may have increased their chances of finding high quality forage, or improved their search of suitable calving sites or mates. Our study revealed the great complexity and dynamic aspects of animal movements in a heterogeneous landscape. Analysis of animal movement provides complementary information to more static habitat selection analyses and helps understanding the spatial variations in the distribution of individuals through time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Premise of the study: Over-browsing of the understory vegetatio by white-tailed deer has been a cause of decline in many plant populations. Liliaceae are particularly sensitive, yet individual species differ in their tolerance to deer herbivory. In this paper, we examine whether differences in clonal habit, carbon allocation patterns, and phenology influence the capacity of a species to tolerate and recover from repeated herbivory. • Methods: Flowering ramets of Clintonia borealis, Maianthemum canadense, and Trillium erectum were subjected to total defoliation for one or two springs. • Key results: Survival was highest in the nonclonal species, T. erectum, most probably due to its very large carbohydrate reserves. Nutrient reserves were less affected than carbohydrate reserves by defoliation, confirming the importance of carbohydrate reserves for survival. However, faster recovery following episodes of defoliation was observed not in the species that sprouted the earliest, T. erectum, but in the clonal species, M. canadense, which had the smallest carbohydrate reserves but also a lower shoot to root ratio than the other clonal species, C. borealis. All plants that were defoliated for 2 years only partially recovered in terms of leaf area, plant biomass, and carbohydrate and nutrient reserves, confirming the overall sensitivity of these species to simulated deer herbivory. • Conclusions: High carbohydrate reserves and consequently low shoot to root ratios appear to increase tolerance to herbivory, whereas clonal species recover faster than nonclonal species. The role played by carbohydrates reserves suggests that these species could benefit from slightly higher light conditions in areas subjected to high deer pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ecoscience (Ecoscience) is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Forest harvesting involves the creation of roads and cutblocks, both of which can influence animal habitat use. We evaluated the cumulative effects of forestry on habitat selection by six packs of gray wolf (Canis lupus) widely distributed in Quebec's boreal forest. Resource selection functions were used to evaluate cumulative effects at two levels. First, we studied how the response of wolves to roads and cutblocks varied within their home range (HR level) as a function of the local abundance of these habitat features. Second, we assessed whether differences in the response to roads and cutblocks observed among packs (inter-HR level) could be explained by variations in their average abundance among individual home ranges. At the HR level, we found that cumulative effects shaped habitat selection of wolves, and the nature of the effects varied during the year. For example, we detected a decrease in the selection of roads following an increase in local road density during the rendez-vous and the nomadic periods, but not during the denning period. At the inter-HR level, we found a functional response to logging activity only during the denning period. Packs with home ranges characterized by a larger proportion of recent cutblocks selected these cutblocks more strongly. We conclude that cumulative effects of logging activities occur at multiple levels, and these effects can have profound effects on habitat use by wolves, thereby influencing spatial predator-prey dynamics. Wildlife conservation and management in boreal ecosystems should thus account for cumulative impacts of anthropogenic features on animal distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope composition (δ13C and δ15N) of moose (Alces alces) and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) hair from the boreal forest of Jacques-Cartier Park and Cote-Nord (Quebec) and arctic tundra of Queen Maud Gulf and Southampton Island (Nunavut) was investigated as an indicator of dietary preferences and habitat use. Values of δ13Chair and δ15Nhair in moose were consistently lower compared to those of caribou. This is consistent with the depletion in 13C and 15N in the plants preferred by moose, essentially browse (shrub and tree leaves), compared to caribou forage, which included significant amounts of graminoids, lichen and fungi. The δ13Chair values of caribou differed between closed boreal forest and open-tundra ecosystems. This pattern followed that expected from the canopy effect observed in plant communities. Variation in δ15Nhair values of caribou was probably linked to the effect of different climatic conditions on plant communities. This study underlines the potential of isotopic analysis for studies on diet and habitat selection within a pure C3 plant environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic disturbances can promote establishment and growth of predator populations in areas where secondary prey can then become threatened. In this study, we investigated habitat selection of eastern coyotes (Canis latrans), a relatively new predator in the vicinity of an endangered population of caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). We hypothesized that coyotes in the boreal forest depend mainly on disturbed habitat, particularly that of anthropogenic origin, because these habitats provide increased food accessibility. Coyotes would likely take advantage of moose (Alces alces) carcasses, berries, and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) found in open habitats created by logging. To test these predictions, we described coyote diet and habitat selection at different spatial and temporal levels and then compared resource availability between habitats. To do so, we installed Global Positioning System radiocollars on 23 individual coyotes in the Gaspésie Peninsula, eastern Québec, Canada. Coyotes selected clear-cuts of 5-20 years and avoided mature coniferous forests both at the landscape and home-range levels. Clear-cuts of 5-20 years were found to contain a high availability of moose carcasses and berries, and vulnerability of snowshoe hares is known to increase in clear-cuts. The importance of these 3 food resources was confirmed by the characteristics of core areas used by coyotes and diet analysis. Moose remains were found at 45% of core areas and coyote diet comprised 51% moose on an annual basis. Anthropogenic disturbances in the boreal forest thus seem to benefit coyotes. Our results indicated that the relationship between coyotes and caribou likely involves spillover predation. This knowledge allows managers to consider spillover predation by coyotes as a possible threat for endangered caribou population when the predator depends mainly on habitat of anthropogenic origin and to suggest methods to alleviate it when developing management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Zoology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Roads often negatively affect terrestrial wildlife, via habitat loss or fragmentation, noise, and direct mortality. We studied moose (Alces alces) behavior relative to a road network, in an area with a history of moose-vehicle accidents, to determine when moose were crossing roadways or using areas near roads and to investigate if environmental factors were involved in this behavior. We tracked 47 adult moose with Global Positioning System collars in a study area crossed by highways and forest roads. We hypothesized that moose would avoid crossing roads but would make occasional visits to roadsides to feed on sodium-rich vegetation and avoid biting insects. Further, we expected moose avoidance to be greater for highways than forest roads. We recorded 196,710 movement segments but only observed 328 highway and 1,172 forest-road crossings (16 and 10 times lower than expected by chance). Moose usually avoided road proximity up to ≥500 m on each side but 20% of collared moose made visits to areas within 50 m of highways, which might have resulted from moose searching for sodium in vegetation and roadside salt pools. In fact, vegetation along highways had higher sodium concentrations and was browsed in similar proportions to vegetation in adjacent forest, despite moose avoidance of these zones. Moose, however, did not use areas near roads more during periods of biting insect abundance. Our results supported the hypothesis of scale-dependent selection by moose; avoidance of highways at a coarse scale may confer long-term benefits, whereas selection of highway corridors at finer scales may be part of a strategy to overcome short-term limiting factors such as sodium deficiency. We found a positive relationship between home-range size and the proportion of road axes they contained, suggesting that moose either compensated for habitat loss or made specific movements along highways to gather sodium. The presence of sodium along highways likely increases moose-vehicle accident risks. Removal of salt pools or use of a de-icing salt other than sodium chloride should render highway surroundings less attractive to moose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sodium has many fundamental physiological functions in animals but is rare in boreal ecosystems where moose (Alces alces) thrive. In Québec (Canada), sodium is readily available in aquatic vegetation and in salt pools that form along highways. We do not know if moose are adopting specific behaviors to access sodium sources or if they simply use the sodium sources they encounter during their movements. We tested the hypothesis that moose modify both space and habitat use to gather sodium from salt pools. We expected moose to use salt pools mostly in spring and early summer, when needs are greatest and before aquatic vegetation has fully developed. We fitted 47 moose with Global Positioning System telemetry collars and collected data for 2 to 36 months between 2003 and 2006. We rarely located moose at salt pools (0.12% among the 95,007 locations collected). As we expected, use of salt pools was highest in late spring and in early summer, and we observed a time lag between peak use of salt pools compared to use of lakes and waterways, indicating moose fulfilled their sodium requirements in salt pools before aquatic vegetation was available. Moose selected salt pools over lakes and waterways when these 2 sodium sources were present in their home range and moved rapidly over large distances to reach them. Our results were consistent with moose using salt pools when they are likely to be sodium deficient. Salt pools were less accessible, required long-distance movements, and were located in habitually avoided areas along highways. Elimination of roadside salt pools should be considered among strategies to reduce cervid-vehicle collision risks in boreal environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduced to small isolated groups by anthropogenic habitat losses or habitat modifications, populations of many endangered species are sensitive to additive sources of mortality, such as predation. Predator control is often one of the first measures considered when predators threaten survival of a population. Unfortunately, predator ecology is often overlooked because relevant data are difficult to obtain. For example, the endangered Gaspésie caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) has benefited from 2 periods of predator control that targeted black bears (Ursus americanus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) in an attempt to reduce predation on caribou calves. Despite a high trapping effort, the number of predators removed has remained stable over time. To assess impact of predator movements on efficacy of a control program, we studied space use of 24 black bears and 16 coyotes over 3 years in and around the Gaspésie Conservation Park, Quebec, Canada, using Global Positioning System radiocollars. Annual home ranges of black bears averaged 260 km² and 10 individuals frequented area used by caribou. Annual home ranges of resident coyotes averaged 121 km², whereas dispersing coyotes covered >2,600 km². Coyotes were generally located at lower altitudes than caribou. However, because coyotes undertook long-distance excursions, they overlapped areas used by caribou. Simulations based on observed patterns showed that 314 bears and 102 coyotes potentially shared part of their home range with areas used by female caribou during the calving period. Despite low densities of both predator species, extensive movement and use of nonexclusive territories seem to allow predators to rapidly occupy removal areas, demonstrating the need for recurrent predator removals. Our results underscore the necessity of considering complementary and alternative solutions to predator control to assure long-term protection of endangered species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When resources are limited, life history theory predicts a trade-off between growth, reproduction and survival. In summer, lactating females of temperate large herbivores such as the white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) normally have access to abundant forage but also face the high energetic needs of lactation and recovery from winter mass loss. At high population density, however, females may face a trade-off between allocating resources for maintenance and for reproduction. To simulate the effects of increased intra-specific competition at high density, we measured for 2 years how an experimental food restriction of approximately 20% affected current reproduction and body mass changes of adult females and their fawns during the fawning and lactation periods. Fawn survival decreased 35%, and fawn growth decreased 26% in the food-restricted treatment. There was no effect of food restriction on female mass. Irrespective of treatment, however, lactating females gained 30 g/day less than non-lactating females, and females that had weaned a fawn the previous year gained 20 g/day less than females that had not. We conclude that when resources were scarce, females adopted a conservative strategy favouring their own survival, mass recovery and future reproductive potential over their current reproduction, probably to maximise their lifetime reproductive success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed and validated a density-adjusted spatial model to predict moose (Alces alces) highway-crossing probability to see if the model could be used as an index of moose-vehicle collision risk. We installed Global Positioning System telemetry collars on 47 moose in the north of the Laurentides Wildlife Reserve, Québec, for 2-36 months. We recorded only 84 highway crossings in spring (0.29% of 28,967 2-hr steps) and 122 crossings in summer (0.18% of 68,337 2-hr steps), despite a high sampling effort and having captured moose close to highways. Moose movement rates during movement steps crossing a highway were on average 3 times higher than during the steps preceding or following highway crossing. Paths used by moose when crossing a highway were characterized by a high proportion of food stands, low proportion of lakes and rivers, and topography typical of a valley. Highway-crossing sites were located in valleys with brackish pools and forest stands providing coniferous cover but a low proportion of lakes and rivers. We adjusted moose crossing probability for local variation in moose density using aerial survey data and assessed crossing probability along the highways in the entire Laurentides Wildlife Reserve. We tested the model using moose-vehicle accident data from 1990 to 2002. The relationship between the density-adjusted crossing probability and number of accidents was relatively loose at the 1-km scale but improved markedly when using longer highway sections (5-15 km; r > 0.80). Our results demonstrate that roads and their surroundings are perceived as low-quality habitat by moose. We also conclude that road segments installed along secondary valleys could be a highly strategic site to deploy mitigation measures such as fences and that it could be desirable to increase the width of road shoulders to reduce forest cover and to eliminate brackish pools to reduce cervid-vehicle collisions. We suggest using empirical data such as location of vehicle-wildlife collisions to plan mitigation measures at a fine scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife-vehicle collisions cause numerous human fatalities and injuries, and generate considerable expenses in property damage each year. Certain characteristics of the road and its surroundings are known to have an impact on collision probability. Roadside salt pools increase the risk of collision by attracting moose (Alces alces) to the side of the road. In the Laurentides Wildlife Reserve of Québec, Canada, roadside salt pools were drained and filled with rocks to deter moose from drinking. We surveyed 12 roadside salt pools during 3 consecutive summers (2003-2005) from mid-May to mid-August. Seven salt pools were managed in autumn 2004, and 5 pools were left untreated. We equipped all 12 sites with electronic apparatus that allowed us to detect moose attendance and study their behavior. We also measured physical, chemical, and environmental characteristics of these pools and other unvisited pools in order to correlate moose attendance with specific habitat criteria. We found that moose mostly attended roadside salt pools from mid-June to mid-July, with a decrease in August. Moose attendance was significantly correlated with visual obstruction toward the road and water availability. Management of the pools caused a decrease in mean length of time moose spent at them. Number of visits decreased significantly at night (by 90%), which was when most visits occurred, but not during the day. The proposed management practice prevented all visiting moose from drinking brackish water. These results suggest that moose should eventually lose interest in treated salt pools, therefore decreasing the risk of moose-vehicle collisions on the road. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested the effectiveness of electric fences to reduce moose (Alces alces)-vehicle collisions in 2 fenced sectors (5 km and 10 km) using weekly track surveys and Global Positioning System telemetry. Number of moose tracks along highways decreased by approximately 80% following fence installation. Only 30% (16/53) of moose tracks observed on the road side of the fence were left by moose that crossed an operational fence; moose mostly entered the fenced corridor through openings (e.g., secondary roads) or at fence extremities. Electric fences also prevented 78% (7/9) of collared moose from crossing the highway in fenced sectors. Fences were less effective during occasional power failures. We suggest that circuit breakers should be used to prevent power failures and that there should be no opening along the fence line unless antiungulate structures are used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of habitat selection usually compares assessments of habitat use to habitat availability. To investigate habitat selection of large mammals today, researchers must choose between a few very expensive Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry collars that can provide many locations and several inexpensive very high frequency telemetry collars that will provide few numbers of locations (unless substantial resources are spent in the field). We investigated the effects of number of locations and sampled animals on the outcome of habitat-selection analyses. We evaluated whether tracking frequency and sample size of individuals influenced our ability to detect habitat selection. We used data obtained from adult female moose fitted with GPS collars to generate data sets simulating various sampling frequencies and sample sizes of individuals. Tracking schedules conformed to those commonly used in ungulate telemetry studies (1 location every 14, 7, or 3 d and 1 or 3 locations per d) as did animal sample sizes (between 8 and 20 individuals). We determined habitat use and availability at the landscape and home-range scales during summer-autumn and winter. Precision of habitat use and availability estimates did not improve markedly with increasing tracking frequency. Only results obtained with the least-intensive tracking schedule (1 location every 14 d) differed from those obtained with the other schedules and only in 25% of the cases. Above this threshold in tracking frequency, number of sampled animals was clearly more important than number of locations in detection of habitat selection. Our results indicated that habitat-selection analyses were more sensitive to inter- than intra-individual variability. Depending on study objectives, it may be more profitable to prioritize number of sampled individuals rather than number of locations per individual. We suggest methods allowing researchers to assess inter-individual variability while studying habitat selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complex interactions such as interference competition and predation, including intraguild predation, are now recognized as important components in animal community structure. At the lower end of a guild, weasels may be highly affected by other guild members due to small body size in relation to other predators. In 2000 and 2001, we radio-collared 24 ermines Mustela erminea and 25 long-tailed weasels M. frenata in 2 areas that differed in abundance of guild members. We tested the hypothesis that when faced with an increased density of other guild members, weasels would modify space and habitat use to reduce the risk of predation associated with encounters involving guild members. We predicted that weasels would increase use of specific habitats (such as refuges) to reduce encounter rates in the presence of a greater number of guild members. Because M. erminea is smaller than M. frenata and thus better able to take advantage of small rodent burrows as refuges from predators and as feeding grounds, we also predicted that M. frenata would show a stronger response to a higher abundance of guild members than M. erminea. Results were consistent with our predictions. Faced with an increased abundance of guild members, M. frenata showed increased habitat selectivity and reduced activity levels, which resulted in increased daily travel distances and increased home ranges. Mustela erminea responded to an increased abundance of guild members through reduced use of preferred habitat which M. frenata already occupied. The contrasting pattern of habitat selection observed between the 2 mustelid species suggested cascading effects, whereby large-predator pressure on M. frenata relaxed pressure of M. frenata on M. erminea. Our results draw attention to the likelihood that competitive intraguild interactions play a facilitating role in M. erminea– M. frenata coexistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations in southern Québec have recently reached record densities after almost collapsing at the turn of the twentieth century. High densities of deer can dramatically alter forest vegetation and tend to increase use of tree plantations, orchards, and agricultural fields, which can induce severe financial loss to producers. We quantified grazing damage in young legume (i.e., clover [Trifolium sp.] and alfalfa (Medicago sativum]) fields that were bordered by woodlots near white-tailed deer wintering areas. We placed exclusion cages in 8 fields during two consecutive dormant seasons (October-May). We collected vegetation just prior to harvesting in exclusion and control plots to estimate dry biomass produced and legume, nitrogen (N), and fiber content of the hay. White-tailed deer grazing in autumn and spring caused an estimated loss ranging from 12-14% in subsequent annual yields in legume fields situated near woodlots. However, losses varied considerably among farms. Legume and chemical content (N and fibers) of the hay were not affected by grazing. Increasing deer harvest likely represents the best method to reduce damage to hay fields in southern Québec. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Forest Research is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Zoology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Presents a letter to the editor about the article "A Comparison of Distance-Based and Classification-Based Analyses of Habitat Use," by L.M. Conner, M.D. Smith, and L.W. Burger that appeared in a previous issue.

It has been suggested that patterns of habitat selection of animals across spatial scales should reflect the factors limiting individual fitness in a hierarchical fashion. Animals should thus select habitats that permit avoidance of the most important limiting factor at large spatial scales while the influence of less important factors should only be evident at fine scales. We tested this hypothesis by investigating moose Alces alces habitat selection using GPS telemetry in an area where the main factors limiting moose numbers were likely (in order of decreasing importance) predation risk, food availability and snow. At the landscape scale, we predicted that moose would prefer areas where the likelihood of encountering wolves was low or areas where habitats providing protection from predation were dominant. At the home-range scale, we predicted that moose selection would be driven by food availability and snow depth. Wolf territories were delineated using telemetry locations and the study area was divided into 3 sectors that differed in terms of annual snowfall. Vegetation surveys yielded 6 habitat categories that differed with respect to food availability, and shelter from predation or snow. Our results broadly supported the hypothesis because moose reacted to several factors at each scale. At the landscape scale, moose were spatially segregated from wolves by avoiding areas receiving the lowest snowfall, but they also preferentially established their home range in areas where shelter from snow bordered habitat types providing abundant food. At the home-range scale, moose also traded off food availability with avoidance of deep snow and predation risk. During winter, moose increased use of stands providing shelter from snow along edges with stands providing abundant food. Habitat selection patterns of females with calves differed from that of solitary moose, the former being associated primarily with habitats providing protection from predation. Animals should attempt to minimize detrimental effects of the main limiting factors when possible at the large scale. However, when the risk associated with several potential limiting factors varies with scale, we should expect animals to make trade-offs among these. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the population dynamics of snowshoe hare in 2 areas of the southern boreal forest of eastern North America that differed with respect to furbearer harvest. We predicted that hare density and survival would be higher in the area with trapping (TRAP) than in the protected area (PROT) as a response to differential predator abundance. Indices of predator density suggested that predation risk was slightly higher in PROT than TRAP, particularly during the first year of our 3-year study. Predators killed 86% of the radiomarked hares (body mass >900 g) that died during the study (n = 71). Hare density was higher in TRAP (56 ± 4 hares/100 ha) than PROT (30 ± 5 hares/ 100 ha). Furthermore, hare densities were relatively stable in both areas between 1998 and 2000. Additional data from the previous 2 years in TRAP indicated that hare density had remained relatively unchanged for 5 years. These findings were in agreement with regional trends in hunter harvests which were low and stable throughout the 1990s. Annual survival of radiomarked hares (>900 g) was high in both areas but decreased during the study. Survival exhibited a sex*area interaction, and was lower for females in TRAP than PROT (46% vs. 76%) but higher for males in TRAP than PROT (64% vs. 37%); hare survival did not differ when sexes were combined. Differential survival of older hares could therefore not explain the difference in hare densities in the 2 areas. Gestation rates were similar in both areas, but the numbers of young hares (300-900 g) entering the population and young: female ratios were higher in TRAP than PROT. Survival of young hares during their first summer was variable between time periods, and tended to be higher in PROT than TRAP Thus, it is likely that improved survival of juveniles (<300 g) soon after birth explains the increased hare density in TRAP. Study results show that managers cannot assume the existence of cyclicity in all hare populations, and must be aware that complex trophic interactions can generate unexpected responses to perturbations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Field-Naturalist is the property of Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Accurate and precise population estimates for the forest-dwelling ecotype of Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) are very difficult to obtain because these Caribou are found at very low densities and in small herds dispersed over large areas. In order to suggest a standardized method, data from aerial surveys conducted in 1991 and 1993 (12 000 Km2 blocks) were used to simulate various survey scenarios. Simulations showed that all the major groups of Caribou would have to be found and counted to obtain a confidence interval of ± 20% (α = 0.10). We tested this technique in a survey carried out in winter 1999 in a 42 539 Km2 study site, opting for a total coverage carried out in two phases. In phase one, we used an airplane, flying north-south transects spaced 2.1 km apart so as to detect most Caribou track networks. In phase two, a helicopter was used to count and determine the sex and age classes (calves/adults) of Caribou found in phase one. Using 20 radio-collared Caribou, the visibility rate of Caribou groups (phase one) and that of Caribou within the groups (phase two) were estimated at 0.90 and 0.94 respectively for an overall rate of 0.85 (SE = 0.08; α = 0.10). The corrected density was estimated at 1.6 Caribou per 100 Km2 with a 15% confidence interval (α = 0.10). The survey cost approximately $4/Km2, which is lower than that of two previous surveys ($7/Km2). Two main factors contributed to diminish costs: (1) the use of long-range airplanes (5-7 hours flying range) in phase one to minimize travel between the airports and the study site, and (2) the use of helicopters only in phase two for counting and determining the age and sex of the Caribou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Field-Naturalist is the property of Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Zoology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Presents a study which investigated the extent increasing the number of locations affects home-range size estimation using data collected on moose fitted with Global Positioning System collars. Advantage of using home-range estimation for investigating animal-habitat relationships; Description of the study area; Methods used; Results of the study; Discussion.

We tested for fine-scale spatial heterogeneity in habitat quality in a roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) population in the Chizé reserve located in western France by measuring spatial variation in the availability and plant nitrogen content of principal and preferred plant species. There were significant differences in habitat quality within the reserve: the principal food plants in spring and summer occurred more frequently in the oak woodland in the north than in the beech woodland in the south of the reserve. Within species, plants in the north had higher nitrogen contents than in the south. There was a positive spatial covariation between habitat quality, local density and fawn body weight: animal densities and fawn body weights were highest in the north, the best habitat (i.e. the habitat with more abundant food of higher quality). These results differ from those recently obtained on red deer (Cervus elaphus). We suggest that spatial organization and foraging behaviour must be accounted for when considering the effect of habitat quality on individual fitness of ungulates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluates the reliability of forest maps for describing wildlife habitats. Measurement of lateral cover and deciduous browse availability; Characterization of wildlife habitats; Classification of cover type on forest maps.

Presents information on a study which compared the influence between satellite geometry and differential correction on Global Positioning System location accuracy. Methodology; Results of the study; Discussion.

We contrasted patterns of growth and accumulation of body reserves in autumn between two high-density (HD) white-tailed deer populations facing winters of different severity and length. Both populations occurred in the absence of effective predators and suffered from some forage competition based on reduced body masses. A third population living at low density (LD) and confronting long and severe winters (SW) served to distinguish the influence of food competition and winter severity on growth and body reserves. We estimated body components (water, protein, fat and ash) of deer during the first half of November and compared growth patterns between sexes and regions. HD-SW males continuted growth to an older age than HD males facing short and mild winters (MW) but females of both regions reached adult body mass at the same age. LD-SW deer exhibited a growth pattern similar to that of HD-SW animals but were the heaviest and the largest, suggesting that growth patterns are related to winter harshness (or length of the growing season) and that final body size is related to forage competition in summer. Sexual dimorphism became evident at an older age in the HD-SW population than in the HD-MW population, demonstrating that winter harshness does not affect immature males and females in the same manner. Fawns from the HD-SW population had proportionally longer legs and a higher percentage of body fat. Adaptations of immature deer to long and severe winters suggest that survival during the first winter represents the most critical step in the life span of northern white-tailed deer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on a study which assessed three feeds for their efficacy in inducing body mass recovery of white-tailed deer after a period of food deprivation. Methods; Food consumption and body mass change; Digestibility and chemical composition of rations.

Summary 1. It has been hypothesized that a balanced adult sex ratio is necessary for the full participation of ungulate females in reproduction and therefore high productivity. We tested this general hypothesis by combining two complementary approaches. 2. First, using telemetry (n = 60) and annual aerial censuses between 1995 and 1998, we compared two moose Alces alces populations in Quebec, Canada, one non-harvested and the other subject to intensive sport harvesting from the end of September to mid-October. We tested the following predictions for the harvested population: (i) females increase movements and home ranges during the mating period; (ii) the mating system is modified, with the appearance of groups of one male and many females; (iii) subadult males participate in reproduction; (iv) the mating period extends over two to three oestrus cycles; (v) the calving period extends over several months; and (vi) productivity declines. 3. Daily movements and home range sizes during the mating period did not differ between harvested and non-harvested populations. Most groups observed were male–female pairs. Subadult males (1·5–2·5 years old) were only observed with females in the harvested population. Mating and calving periods did not differ between populations. The proportion of females that gave birth and the number of calves produced were also comparable in the two populations. 4. Secondly, we also assessed the existence of a relationship between population productivity and percentage of males in various management units of the province of Quebec that were characterized by a wide range in sex ratios. Contrary to prediction (vi), the number of calves per 100 adult females was not related to the percentage of adult males in the population. 5. The participation of young adult males (subadults) in reproduction in our harvested population may have compensated for the lower percentage of adult males, and thus productivity was unaffected. We therefore reject the hypothesis that intensive harvesting, at least at the level we observed, affects reproduction and population productivity. 6. As there are some uncertainties regarding the long-term effects of high hunting pressure, however, managers should favour sex ratios close to levels observed in non-harvested populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimality models of food selection by herbivores assume that individuals are capable of assessing forage value, either directly through the currency used in the model or indirectly through other variables correlated with the currency. Although energy and protein are the two currencies most often used, controversy exists regarding their respective influence on food choice. Part of the debate is due to the difficulty of teasing apart these two nutrients, which are closely correlated in most natural forages. Here we offer a test of the assumption that energy and protein contents of the forage are both currencies that large mammalian herbivores can use when selecting their food. We observed feeding behavior of 47 wild white-tailed deer ( Odocoileusvirginianus) during winter while individuals were presented with four experimental foods representing two levels of energy and protein (dry matter digestibility: 40–50%; crude protein: 12–16%). Using experimental foods allowed us to separate the influences of energy and protein and clearly distinguish between the roles of these two nutrients. Deer discriminated between foods through partial selection, and selected diets higher in energy but lower in protein. The observed choices appeared consistent with physiological needs of deer wintering at the study site, where digestible energy was in short supply in the natural environment while protein was probably not. Results are in good agreement with recent findings on domesticated ruminants. They support a basic assumption of optimality models of food selection that use energy and/or protein as a currency, although the physiological mechanisms behind the food selection process remain unclear. We urge students of food selection by herbivores to replicate our experiment with other foods and/or in other circumstances before more general conclusions are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes moose (Alces alces) disperal pattern, and its role in the maintenance of harvested populations in three regions of Quebec, Canada. Period and extent of natal disperal; Distance between the calf and its mother; Information on the study sites; Results of the study.