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Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency and size of wildfires. Wildfire burns can influence wildlife space use, but prior to understanding the relationship between wildlife and burns, the extent of wildfires and the regrowth of burned areas must be determined. We used remotely sensed, multispectral satellite imagery to calculate differenced normalized burn ratios (NBRs) to define areas burned by wildfire and assess temporal trends in burn frequency and extent in central British Columbia. We then used NBRs as an index of vegetation regrowth to model regrowth trajectories within burns. Next, we examined spatial responses to burns by a moose (Alces alces) population that recently declined in abundance. We utilized locations used by and available to collared moose to determine spatial responses as a function of years since wildfire and vegetation regrowth. We also assessed functional responses to burns by moose, dependent upon the proportion of burned areas available to each individual. We hypothesized that (h1) wildfire burns within our study area increased from 1985 to 2017, (h2) that moose increase their use of burns in comparison with availability as burns age as a result of vegetation regrowth, and (h3) that moose demonstrate functional responses to burns (i.e., selection of burns by individual moose declines as the amount of burned areas increases). We observed that the frequency and extent of burns are increasing within our study area. In contrast to h2, moose in summer and fall decreased the selection of burns as burns aged. We, however, observed that moose responded most positively to locations with intermediate vegetation regrowth (i.e., NBR values), which according to burn regrowth trajectories were most likely to be achieved 13 or more years post‐wildfire; given that most burns within our study area were ≤13 years of age, we predict that the use of burns will likely increase as vegetation regrows. Moose only selected for burns in fall, and we did not find support for the presence of a functional response. Our research demonstrated the utility of remotely sensed imagery and NBRs to define burn locations and to reveal current and probable future spatial responses to burns by a wildlife population of concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gray wolves (Canis lupus) were reintroduced to Idaho, USA, in 1995–1996. The removal of Endangered Species Act protections in 2011 transferred wolf management to the state where wolves were subsequently classified as a harvested (i.e., hunted, trapped) big game species. We implemented a camera‐based survey across Idaho from 2016–2021 as part of a population monitoring program. We used the resulting camera images in multi‐year, dynamic and single‐season occupancy models to examine potential changes in the asymptotic proportion of area occupied by wolves and assess the effect of cumulative wolf harvest from 2016–2021 on occupancy in the last year of the study, 2021. We also wanted to understand how habitat, prey, humans, harvest, livestock, and prey‐related wolf removals affected wolf occupancy through their effects on colonization and extinction of occupancy cells through time. Statewide wolf occupancy did not change appreciably over the course of our study, with the proportion of survey cells occupied at an estimated high of 0.44 ± 0.03 (SE) in 2018 and a low of 0.39 ± 0.03 in 2020. Wolf colonization (i.e., probability that a cell switched from unoccupied to occupied between years) was positively associated with forest cover, images of humans, and the percent of neighboring cells that were occupied. Cell extinction (i.e., probability of switching from occupied to unoccupied between years) was negatively associated with neighboring cell occupancy. There were non‐linear relationships between wolf harvest, colonization, and extinction. The single‐season occupancy model demonstrated a positive relationship between harvest and occupancy at low to moderate levels of harvest (10–30%), but there was also evidence that high levels of harvest (>30%) reduce occupancy. Our results indicate that although harvest might influence wolf occupancy at local scales, wolf occupancy remained relatively constant across the state and wolves remained well distributed across Idaho during the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Zoology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Wildlife-vehicle collisions threaten both humans and wildlife, but we still lack information about the relationship between traffic volume and wildlife-vehicle collisions. The COVID-19 pandemic allowed us to investigate the effects of traffic volume on wildlife-vehicle collisions in the United States. We observed decreased traffic nationwide, particularly in densely populated states with low or high disease burdens. Despite reduced traffic, total collisions were unchanged; wildlife-vehicle collisions did decline at the start of the pandemic, but increased as the pandemic progressed, ultimately exceeding collisions in the previous year. As a result, nationwide collision rates were higher during the pandemic. We suggest that increased wildlife road use offsets the effects of decreased traffic volume on wildlife-vehicle collisions. Thus, decreased traffic volume will not always reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals in substandard physical condition are predicted to be more vulnerable to predation. Support for this prediction is inconsistent partly as a result of differences across systems in the life histories of predator and prey species. Our objective was to examine the physical condition of woodland caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou calves depredated by two predators with different life histories in Newfoundland, Canada. Black bears Ursus americanus are capable of chasing calves at high speeds over short distances and primarily prey on calves <1 month of age. Coyotes Canis latrans are cursorial predators that pursue prey over longer distances, which is expected to result in the selection of substandard individuals. We hypothesized that 1) black bears will kill calves in substandard physical condition, while 2) coyotes will kill calves from across the distribution of individual conditions. We used mitochondrial DNA species identification tests to assign predator species to calf mortalities. We then used molecular identifications and field observations to build a predictive model using generalized boosted trees to predict the predator species where a molecular identification was unavailable. We tested our hypotheses using Cox proportional hazards models under a competing risks framework. Bears killed younger calves and lighter calves, while coyotes killed heavier calves. Coyotes also killed more late-born calves, which might suggest prey switching as calves become more abundant later in the season. Our findings suggest that the physical constraints of predators play a greater role than predator hunting strategies in this system, but other processes are likely influential. The tendency for coyotes to kill heavier calves might result from sustained coyote predation over time, following the removal by black bears of lighter calves during their first month of age. This research illuminates the complexity of predator–prey interactions in Newfoundland and highlights an important source of variability for predator–prey systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Anthropogenic linear features can have negative effects on wildlife by altering movements or increasing risk. Spatial responses to linear features vary depending on local conditions (functional responses), including linear feature availability. Several studies explored functional responses of wildlife to linear features, but few examined responses of multiple interacting species. Objectives: We evaluated functional responses of Threatened boreal woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), moose (Alces alces), and gray wolves (Canis lupus) to roads and seismic lines (linear features created during fossil fuel exploration) to assess the influence these responses might have on predator–prey interactions. Methods: We estimated median distance to and the density of roads and seismic lines around used and available locations by landcover (peatlands and non-peatlands) and season for each individual. To quantify functional responses, we regressed use in response to availability in peatlands and non-peatlands across seasons and selected the most parsimonious models for each species. Results: Boreal caribou generally avoided higher road density. Wolves selected areas closer to roads in peatlands and demonstrated selection or indifference to higher road density as availability increased. Female moose generally avoided areas with higher road density, except in early winter. Female caribou and moose demonstrated weaker responses to seismic line density. During calving, late summer, and early winter, wolves often selected for seismic line density, particularly in peatlands, when availability was high. Conclusions: Our analyses suggest that boreal caribou, moose, and wolves respond to linear features in complex ways that alter individual space-use and likely influence predation risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals in substandard physical condition are predicted to be more vulnerable to predation. Support for this prediction is inconsistent partly as a result of differences across systems in the life histories of predator and prey species. Our objective was to examine the physical condition of woodland caribou Rangifer tarandus caribou calves depredated by two predators with different life histories in Newfoundland, Canada. Black bears Ursus americanus are capable of chasing calves at high speeds over short distances and primarily prey on calves <1 month of age. Coyotes Canis latrans are cursorial predators that pursue prey over longer distances, which is expected to result in the selection of substandard individuals. We hypothesized that 1) black bears will kill calves in substandard physical condition, while 2) coyotes will kill calves from across the distribution of individual conditions. We used mitochondrial DNA species identification tests to assign predator species to calf mortalities. We then used molecular identifications and field observations to build a predictive model using generalized boosted trees to predict the predator species where a molecular identification was unavailable. We tested our hypotheses using Cox proportional hazards models under a competing risks framework. Bears killed younger calves and lighter calves, while coyotes killed heavier calves. Coyotes also killed more late-born calves, which might suggest prey switching as calves become more abundant later in the season. Our findings suggest that the physical constraints of predators play a greater role than predator hunting strategies in this system, but other processes are likely influential. The tendency for coyotes to kill heavier calves might result from sustained coyote predation over time, following the removal by black bears of lighter calves during their first month of age. This research illuminates the complexity of predator-prey interactions in Newfoundland and highlights an important source of variability for predator-prey systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Prey abundance and prey vulnerability vary across space and time, but we know little about how they mediate predator–prey interactions and predator foraging tactics. To evaluate the interplay between prey abundance, prey vulnerability and predator space use, we examined patterns of black bear (Ursus americanus) predation of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) neonates in Newfoundland, Canada using data from 317 collared individuals (9 bears, 34 adult female caribou, 274 caribou calves). During the caribou calving season, we predicted that landscape features would influence calf vulnerability to bear predation, and that bears would actively hunt calves by selecting areas associated with increased calf vulnerability. Further, we hypothesized that bears would dynamically adjust their foraging tactics in response to spatiotemporal changes in calf abundance and vulnerability (collectively, calf availability). Accordingly, we expected bears to actively hunt calves when they were most abundant and vulnerable, but switch to foraging on other resources as calf availability declined. As predicted, landscape heterogeneity influenced risk of mortality, and bears displayed the strongest selection for areas where they were most likely to kill calves, which suggested they were actively hunting caribou. Initially, the per‐capita rate at which bears killed calves followed a type‐I functional response, but as the calving season progressed and calf vulnerability declined, kill rates dissociated from calf abundance. In support of our hypothesis, bears adjusted their foraging tactics when they were less efficient at catching calves, highlighting the influence that predation phenology may have on predator space use. Contrary to our expectations, however, bears appeared to continue to hunt caribou as calf availability declined, but switched from a tactic of selecting areas of increased calf vulnerability to a tactic that maximized encounter rates with calves. Our results reveal that generalist predators can dynamically adjust their foraging tactics over short time‐scales in response to changing prey abundance and vulnerability. Further, they demonstrate the utility of integrating temporal dynamics of prey availability into investigations of predator–prey interactions, and move towards a mechanistic understanding of the dynamic foraging tactics of a large omnivore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apex predators may influence carnivore communities through the suppression of competitively dominant mesopredators, however they also provide carrion subsidies that could influence foraging and competition among sympatric mesopredators when small prey is scarce. We assessed coyote Canis latrans and red fox Vulpes vulpes winter diet overlap and composition from scats collected in two study areas with 3‐fold difference in grey wolf Canis lupus density due to a wolf control program. We hypothesized that differences in diet composition would be driven by the use of carrion, and tested whether 1) apex predators facilitate resource overlap, or 2) apex predators facilitate resource partitioning. We estimated the available biomass of snowshoe hares and voles based on pellet density and vole capture rates in each study area. We used molecular analysis to confirm species identification of predator scats, and used microscopic evaluation of prey remains to analyze diet composition of 471 coyote and fox scats. Ungulate carrion, voles and snowshoe hares comprised 73% of coyote and fox diet, and differences in use of carrion and microtines accounted for nearly 60% of the dissimilarity in diet among these canids. Carrion was the top‐ranked item in the coyote diet in both study areas, whereas carrion use by red foxes declined 3‐fold in the study area with higher wolf and small prey abundance. Diet overlap tended to be lower and diet diversity tended to be higher where wolves were more abundant, though these trends were not statistically significant. Taken together, our findings indicate that carrion provisions could facilitate resource partitioning in mesocarnivore communities by alleviating exploitation competition for small mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For many organisms, climate change can directly drive population declines, but it is less clear how such variation may influence populations indirectly through modified biotic interactions. For instance, how will climate change alter complex, multi-species relationships that are modulated by climatic variation and that underlie ecosystem-level processes? Caribou ( Rangifer tarandus), a keystone species in Newfoundland, Canada, provides a useful model for unravelling potential and complex long-term implications of climate change on biotic interactions and population change. We measured cause-specific caribou calf predation (1990-2013) in Newfoundland relative to seasonal weather patterns. We show that black bear ( Ursus americanus) predation is facilitated by time-lagged higher summer growing degree days, whereas coyote ( Canis latrans) predation increases with current precipitation and winter temperature. Based on future climate forecasts for the region, we illustrate that, through time, coyote predation on caribou calves could become increasingly important, whereas the influence of black bear would remain unchanged. From these predictions, demographic projections for caribou suggest long-term population limitation specifically through indirect effects of climate change on calf predation rates by coyotes. While our work assumes limited impact of climate change on other processes, it illustrates the range of impact that climate change can have on predator-prey interactions. We conclude that future efforts to predict potential effects of climate change on populations and ecosystems should include assessment of both direct and indirect effects, including climate-predator interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predation risk is a driver of species' distributions. Animals can increase risk avoidance in response to fluctuations in predation risk, but questions remain regarding individual variability and the capacity to respond to changes in spatial risk across human-altered landscapes. In northeast British Columbia, Canada, boreal caribou populations declined as roads and seismic lines have increased, which are theorized to increase gray wolf predation. Our goal was to model risk and to evaluate individual variability and the development of risk perception by examining individual risk avoidance in response to reproductive status and age. We used locations from collared caribou and wolves to identify landscape features associated with the risk of a potential wolf-caribou encounter and risk of being killed given an encounter. We built resource selection functions to estimate individual responses to risk. We used general linear regressions to evaluate individual risk and linear feature avoidance as a function of age and reproductive status (calf or no calf). Linear features increased the risk of encounter. Older caribou and caribou with calves demonstrated stronger avoidance of the risk of encounter and roads, but weaker avoidance in late summer to the risk of being killed relative to younger and calf-less individuals. Mechanisms explaining the inverse relationships between the risk of encounter and risk of being killed are uncertain, but it is conceivable that caribou learn to avoid the risk of encounter and roads. Responses by females with vulnerable calves to the risk of encounter and risk of being killed might be explained by a trade-off between these two risk types and a prioritization on the risk of encounter. Despite the capacity to alter their responses to risk, the global decline in Rangifer populations (caribou and wild reindeer) suggests these behaviors are insufficient to mitigate the impacts of anthropogenic disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic disturbances have altered species' distributions potentially impacting interspecific interactions. Interference competition is when one species denies a competing species access to a resource. One mechanism of interference competition is aggression, which can result in altered space-use of a subordinate species due to the threat of harm, otherwise known as a 'landscape of fear'. Alternatively, subordinates might outcompete dominant species in resource-poor environments via a superior ability to extract resources. Our goal was to evaluate spatial predictions of the 'landscape of fear' hypothesis for a carnivore guild in Newfoundland, Canada, where coyotes recently immigrated. Native Newfoundland carnivores include red foxes, Canada lynx, and black bears. We predicted foxes and lynx would avoid coyotes because of their larger size and similar dietary niches. We used scat-detecting dogs and genetic techniques to locate and identify predator scats. We then built resource selection functions and tested for avoidance by incorporating predicted values of selection for the alternative species into the best supported models of each species. We found multiple negative relationships, but notably did not find avoidance by foxes of areas selected by coyotes. While we did find that lynx avoided coyotes, we also found a reciprocal relationship. The observed patterns suggest spatial partitioning and not coyote avoidance, although avoidance could still be occurring at different spatial or temporal scales. Furthermore, Newfoundland's harsh climate and poor soils may swing the pendulum of interspecific interactions from interference competition to exploitative competition, where subordinates outcompete dominant competitors through a superior ability to extract resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate can have direct and indirect effects on population dynamics via changes in resource competition or predation risk, but this influence may be modulated by density- or phase-dependent processes. We hypothesized that for ungulates, climatic conditions close to parturition have a greater influence on the predation risk of neonates during population declines, when females are already under nutritional stress triggered by food limitation., We examined the presence of phase-dependent climate-predator ( PDCP) interactions on neonatal ungulate survival by comparing spatial and temporal fluctuations in climatic conditions, cause-specific mortality and per capita resource limitation. We determined cause-specific fates of 1384 caribou ( Rangifer tarandus) from 10 herds in Newfoundland, spanning more than 30 years during periods of numerical increase and decline, while exposed to predation from black bears ( Ursus americanus) and coyotes ( Canis latrans)., We conducted Cox proportional hazards analysis for competing risks, fit as a function of weather metrics, to assess pre- and post-partum climatic influences on survival on herds in population increase and decline phases. We used cumulative incidence functions to compare temporal changes in risk from predators., Our results support our main hypothesis; when caribou populations increased, weather conditions preceding calving were the main determinants of cause-specific mortality, but when populations declined, weather conditions during calving also influenced predator-driven mortality. Cause-specific analysis showed that weather conditions can differentially affect predation risk between black bears and coyotes with specific variables increasing the risk from one species and decreasing the risk from the other., For caribou, nutritional stress appears to increase predation risk on neonates, an interaction which is exacerbated by susceptibility to climatic events. These findings support the PDCP interactions framework, where maternal body condition influences susceptibility to climate-related events and, subsequently, risk from predation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Zoology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

An understanding of a species' diet is required to make sound conservation and management decisions. Traditionally, morphological analyses of undigested hard parts from food items remaining in scats have been used to assess diets. More recently, molecular analyses of scats have been used to identify plant and prey species' DNA, but no studies have compared morphological and molecular diet analyses for large, terrestrial carnivores. We used molecular tools to determine the percentage of black bear and coyote scats that contained 3 common prey species (caribou, moose, and snowshoe hares) in Newfoundland and compared the results to a traditional morphological analysis. We found that a ranking of relative prey frequencies was consistent between the 2 methods, but molecular methods tended to detect prey species in a greater percentage of scats for all prey species. However, there were individual scats in which a prey species was detected by morphological methods only, and we provide evidence that molecular methods could result in false negatives if prey DNA is not uniformly distributed throughout a scat or as a result of PCR inconsistency. We also found that the per sample cost comparison between morphological and molecular analyses was dependent upon whether or not a molecular test was needed to identify scats to the predator species, the cost of developing molecular methods, and the number of samples being processed. We recommend that controlled feeding studies be performed to validate molecular methods and investigate the utility of molecular techniques to estimate the proportions of food items consumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring large carnivores is difficult because of intrinsically low densities and can be dangerous if physical capture is required. Noninvasive genetic sampling (NGS) is a safe and cost-effective alternative to physical capture. We evaluated the utility of two NGS methods (scat detection dogs and hair sampling) to obtain genetic samples for abundance estimation of coyotes, black bears and Canada lynx in three areas of Newfoundland, Canada. We calculated abundance estimates using program capwire, compared sampling costs, and the cost/sample for each method relative to species and study site, and performed simulations to determine the sampling intensity necessary to achieve abundance estimates with coefficients of variation (CV) of <10%. Scat sampling was effective for both coyotes and bears and hair snags effectively sampled bears in two of three study sites. Rub pads were ineffective in sampling coyotes and lynx. The precision of abundance estimates was dependent upon the number of captures/individual. Our simulations suggested that ~3.4 captures/individual will result in a < 10% CV for abundance estimates when populations are small (23-39), but fewer captures/individual may be sufficient for larger populations. We found scat sampling was more cost-effective for sampling multiple species, but suggest that hair sampling may be less expensive at study sites with limited road access for bears. Given the dependence of sampling scheme on species and study site, the optimal sampling scheme is likely to be study-specific warranting pilot studies in most circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predator species identification is an important step in understanding predator-prey interactions, but predator identifications using kill site observations are often unreliable. We used molecular tools to analyse predator saliva, scat and hair from caribou calf kills in Newfoundland, Canada to identify the predator species, individual and sex. We sampled DNA from 32 carcasses using cotton swabs to collect predator saliva. We used fragment length analysis and sequencing of mitochondrial DNA to distinguish between coyote, black bear, Canada lynx and red fox and used nuclear DNA microsatellite analysis to identify individuals. We compared predator species detected using molecular tools to those assigned via field observations at each kill. We identified a predator species at 94% of carcasses using molecular methods, while observational methods assigned a predator species to 62.5% of kills. Molecular methods attributed 66.7% of kills to coyote and 33.3% to black bear, while observations assigned 40%, 45%, 10% and 5% to coyote, bear, lynx and fox, respectively. Individual identification was successful at 70% of kills where a predator species was identified. Only one individual was identified at each kill, but some individuals were found at multiple kills. Predator sex was predominantly male. We demonstrate the first large-scale evaluation of predator species, individual and sex identification using molecular techniques to extract DNA from swabs of wild prey carcasses. Our results indicate that kill site swabs (i) can be highly successful in identifying the predator species and individual responsible; and (ii) serve to inform and complement traditional methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of study design on the ability to detect the effects of landscape pattern on gene flow is one of the most pressing methodological gaps in landscape genetic research. To investigate the effect of study design on landscape genetics inference, we used a spatially-explicit, individual-based program to simulate gene flow in a spatially continuous population inhabiting a landscape with gradual spatial changes in resistance to movement. We simulated a wide range of combinations of number of loci, number of alleles per locus and number of individuals sampled from the population. We assessed how these three aspects of study design influenced the statistical power to successfully identify the generating process among competing hypotheses of isolation-by-distance, isolation-by-barrier, and isolation-by-landscape resistance using a causal modelling approach with partial Mantel tests. We modelled the statistical power to identify the generating process as a response surface for equilibrium and non-equilibrium conditions after introduction of isolation-by-landscape resistance. All three variables (loci, alleles and sampled individuals) affect the power of causal modelling, but to different degrees. Stronger partial Mantel r correlations between landscape distances and genetic distances were found when more loci were used and when loci were more variable, which makes comparisons of effect size between studies difficult. Number of individuals did not affect the accuracy through mean equilibrium partial Mantel r, but larger samples decreased the uncertainty (increasing the precision) of equilibrium partial Mantel r estimates. We conclude that amplifying more (and more variable) loci is likely to increase the power of landscape genetic inferences more than increasing number of individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Woodland caribou is a Threatened or Endangered subspecies across much of Canada. In many cases, these caribou are declining because of human‐mediated predation in the form of apparent competition. Provincial and federal agencies have employed a number of conservation actions to arrest the decline, but insufficient time and limited replication make it difficult to test the efficacy of those activities. We built a three‐species population model that served as a tool to integrate current knowledge, explore uncertainties, and assess activities focused on the recovery of caribou. We applied the model to interconnected populations of caribou, moose, and wolves at two locations in Canada (Chinchaga [British Columbia], Charlevoix [Québec]) and explored the efficacy of conservation actions unique to each population: predator control, restoration of linear features, reduction of habitat for moose, supplementation, maternal pens, and predator exclosures. Results confirmed that caribou at these two locations faced different recovery challenges, dictated by specific population dynamics and threats. Wolf predation, enhanced by seismic lines and resource roads, was responsible for the decline of the simulated Chinchaga population. The most cost‐effective recovery actions for that population were long‐term lethal wolf control (λ1–50 = 1.014, $25,665/caribou), a large‐scale predator exclosure (λ1–50 = 1.015, $170,767/caribou), and the aggressive restoration of linear features (λ1–50 = 1.002, $531,675/caribou). In contrast, simulations suggested that calf predation by black bears, a fixed source of mortality in the model, limited the growth of the Charlevoix population. Assuming high survival of adult caribou and poor recruitment of juveniles, a maternal pen was the most effective action for the recovery of those caribou (λ1–50 = 1.004, $148,473/caribou). Short‐term population supplementation provided only a temporary increase in abundance (λ1–50 = 0.994, $62,143/caribou). The model was limited by ecological and data uncertainties, but served as an effective platform for representing and testing our understanding of the complex interspecific interactions that underlie the recovery of woodland caribou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]