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The present study aimed to determine the in vitro antibacterial activity and the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) from two medicinal plants (seeds of Carum copticum L. and leaves of Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam) against the bacterial plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. The sensitivity of P. syringae to the two types of EOs was investigated through three methods including disc diffusion, well diffusion, and vapor phase tests. Gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography attached to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS) were used to identify and quantify the essential oil compounds. The greatest growth inhibition zones for disc diffusion, well diffusion, and vapor tests were observed for the highest essential oil volume (50 µL) of Z. clinopodioides as 0.925 cm, 1.75 cm, and 1.45 cm, respectively. Concerning the EOs from C. copticum seeds, the diameters of growth inhibition zones were 0.775 cm, 1 cm, and 0 cm, respectively. Based on the obtained results, the highest antibacterial activity, with a growth inhibition zone of 1.75 cm, belonged to 50 µL EOs of Z. clinopodioides on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar medium. The minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the EOs of Z. clinopodioides were 8 µL mL−1 and 1 µL mL−1 in LB agar medium. The MBC and MIC values for EOs of C. copticum were 16 µL mL−1 and 1 µL mL−1, in LB agar medium, respectively. According to the chromatography results, 16 different compounds were identified in the EOs of C. copticum, of which thymol (54.6%) was the major constituent. Moreover, 27 different compounds were identified in the Z. clinopodioides EOs, of which pulegone (23%) and 1,8 cineole (20.3%) were the main essential oil constituents. The results demonstrated that the EOs of Z. clinopodioides plants had higher chemical diversity and displayed stronger antibacterial activities against P. syringe pv. syringae, compared to those of C. copticum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying and monitoring the efficiency of alternative biocides that are presently used in livestock is gaining vast attention. The objective of this study was to determine, in vitro, the antibacterial activity of nine commercial water disinfectants, acidifiers, and glyceride blends against clinical isolates or reference strains of zoonotic pathogens belonging to the genera Escherichia spp., Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Listeria spp., and Staphylococcus spp. For each product, the antibacterial activity was tested in concentrations ranging from 0.002 to 1.136% v/v and expressed as the minimum concentration of the product that inhibits bacterial growth (MIC). Water disinfectants Cid 2000™ and Aqua-clean® recorded MICs ranging from 0.002 to 0.142% v/v, while the lowest MICs were recorded at two strains of Campylobacter (0.002–0.004% v/v). Virkon® S displayed various MICs (0.013–0.409% w/v) and was highly effective at suppressing the growth of Gram-positive bacteria such as S. aureus (0.013–0.026% w/v). The MICs of water acidifiers (Agrocid Super™Oligo, Premium acid, and Ultimate acid) and glyceride blends (CFC Floramix, FRA®LAC34, and FRA®Gut Balance) ranged from 0.036 to 1.136% v/v, and for most of these products, MICs were closely correlated by their ability to modify the pH of the culture medium close to 5. In conclusion, most of the tested products showed promising antibacterial activity; as a result, they would be good candidates for pathogen control in poultry farms and for reducing the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. However, further in vivo studies are recommended to provide relevant information for the underlying mechanisms, as well as for the establishment of the optimal dosage scheme for each product and their possible synergies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapidly growing mycobacteria (RGM) cause an increasing international concern, mainly due to their natural resistance to many antibiotics. The aim of this study was to conduct species identification and determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of RGM isolated in Poland. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested using broth microdilution and the RAPMYCOI panel. A total of 60 strains were analysed, including the following species: M. fortuitum complex (30), M. abscessus subsp. abscessus (16), M. abscessus subsp. massiliense (7), M. chelonae (5), and M. mucogenicum (2). For 12 M. abscessus subsp. abscessus strains, the presence of the erm 41T28 genotype associated with inducible macrolide resistance and a functional erm gene was confirmed. A MUT2 mutation in the rrl gene (constitutive resistance) was identified for two strains from the subtype M. abscessus subsp. massiliense. Among the 15 tested antibiotics, amikacin and linezolid had the strongest antimycobacterial activity. Most of the tested strains were resistant to doxycycline and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Tigecycline MICs were low for all tested strains. Findings from our study highlight the importance of correct identification of clinical isolates and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hussain Sagar Lake (17.4239° N, 78.4738° E) located at the heart of the capital of Telangana state, Hyderabad, is well known by many as a tourist spot. However, during the recent years, this lake has been contaminated by various industries surrounding the lake, especially from the Kukatpally channel and NTR Marg. Such inflow and heavy dumping of wastes have led to huge amount of toxic silt at the bottom and have taken a toll on the holding capacity of the lake. This paper focuses on the effect of bacteria on the heavy metals in the lake soil samples. Cadmium sulfate was used to prepare the heavy metal sample and a cadmium-resistant bacterium was obtained after 48 h of treatment. Among the eight bacterial isolates, one showed cadmium absorption capacity with a minimal inhibitory concentration of 500 mg/l of synthetically prepared solution. The sample also showed resistance to other heavy metals like copper and zinc. The bacterium from this sample was identified to be Pseudomonas fluorescens which was used for optimization whose growth was assessed based on UV absorbance at 600 nm. The optimum solution was obtained at a pH of 6.01 and a temperature of 32.7 °C, and the removal rate for 50 mg/l of cadmium was observed to be 90% and that of 100 mg/l was found to be 72%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) is a wide edible mushroom widely consumed in Thailand. Ethanol extract was extracted from mycelium of L. squarrosulus No. 2 and Lentinus basidiocarp obtained from the local market at Mahasarakham province using 50% ethanol solvent. The effect of ethanolic extracts was tested for inhibition to some pathogenic bacteria. Antibacterial activity was tested by Poison food technique, it was found that 50 % ethanol extract from mycelium at concentrations of 10%, 15%, and 30% was effective to inhibit Bacillus cereus at the highest level (+++) and mycelium extract at the concentrations of 15% and 30% can inhibit Staphylococcus aureus with low level (+). But all concentrations of L. squarrosulus basidiocarp extract unable to inhibit the growth of B. cereus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of ethanolic extract from mycelium inhibit B. cereus was 125 mg/ml. The results indicate that the potential of L. squarrosulus mycelium is an excellent source of antimicrobial agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Therapeutic drug monitoring is considered to be an effective tool for the individualized use of voriconazole. However, drug concentration measurement alone doesn't take into account the susceptibility of the infecting microorganisms to the drug. Linking pharmacodynamic data with the pharmacokinetic profile of individuals is expected to be an effective method to predict the probability of a certain therapeutic outcome. The objective of this study was to individualize voriconazole regimens by integrating individual pharmacokinetic parameters and pathogen susceptibility data through Monte Carlo simulations The individual pharmacokinetic parameters of 35 hospitalized patients who received voriconazole were calculated based on a validated population pharmacokinetic model. The area under the concentration-time curve for free drug/minimal inhibitory concentration (fAUCss/MIC) > 25 was selected as the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) parameter predicting the efficacy of voriconazole. The cumulative fraction of response (CFR) of the target value was assessed. To verify this conclusion, a logistic regression analysis was used to explore the relationship between actual clinical efficiency and the CFR value. For the 35 patients, the area under the free drug concentration-time curve (fAUCss) was calculated to be 34.90 ± 21.67 mgh/L. According to the dualistic logistic regression analysis, the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of different kinds of fungi had a great influence on the effectiveness of clinical treatment. It also showed that the actual clinical efficacy and the CFR value of fAUCss/MIC had a high degree of consistency. The results suggest that it is feasible to individualize voriconazole dosing and predict clinical outcomes through the integration of data on pharmacokinetics and antifungal susceptibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi from the genus Candida are very important human and animal pathogens. Many strains can produce biofilms, which inhibit the activity of antifungal drugs and increase the tolerance or resistance to them as well. Clinically, this process leads to persistent infections and increased mortality. Today, many Candida species are resistant to drugs, including C. auris, which is a multiresistant pathogen. Natural compounds may potentially be used to combat multiresistant and biofilm-forming strains. The aim of this review was to present plant-derived preparations and compounds that inhibit Candida biofilm formation by at least 50%. A total of 29 essential oils and 16 plant extracts demonstrate activity against Candida biofilms, with the following families predominating: Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Apiacae. Lavandula dentata (0.045–0.07 mg/L), Satureja macrosiphon (0.06–8 mg/L), and Ziziphora tenuior (2.5 mg/L) have the best antifungal activity. High efficacy has also been observed with Artemisia judaica, Lawsonia inermis, and Thymus vulgaris. Moreover, 69 plant compounds demonstrate activity against Candida biofilms. Activity in concentrations below 16 mg/L was observed with phenolic compounds (thymol, pterostilbene, and eugenol), sesquiterpene derivatives (warburganal, polygodial, and ivalin), chalconoid (lichochalcone A), steroidal saponin (dioscin), flavonoid (baicalein), alkaloids (waltheriones), macrocyclic bisbibenzyl (riccardin D), and cannabinoid (cannabidiol). The above compounds act on biofilm formation and/or mature biofilms. In summary, plant preparations and compounds exhibit anti-biofilm activity against Candida. Given this, they may be a promising alternative to antifungal drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ege Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences (EgeJFAS) / Su Ürünleri Dergisi is the property of Ege Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences (EgeJFAS) / Su Urunleri Dergisi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background. Vancomycin, the first line antibiotic for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia, is often administered inappropriately when MIC is greater than 2 µg/mL, including ‘susceptible’ strains. This study assessed the discordance of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Methods. In total, 229 MRSA isolates from blood cultures collected between 2009 and 2015 at a tertiary hospital in Taiwan were examined. The MICs of vancomycin were measured using Vitek 2, E-test, and standard broth microdilution at the level of 2 µg/mL. Results. The geometric mean of the MICs of hospital-acquired MRSA was higher than that of community-acquired MRSA (P < 0.001), with the exact agreement rates (with broth microdilution) at 2 µg/mL being 53.6% in Vitek 2 and 86.7% in E-test. Overall, E-test (98.1%) had more categorical accordance than did Vitek 2 (94.0%; P = 0.026). Vitek 2 had a tendency to overestimate MRSA in high-MIC isolates, whereas E-test inclined underestimation in low-MIC isolates. Surprisingly, the discordance rates of MRSA vancomycin MICs were higher in hospital-acquired isolates (13.3%–17.0%) than in community-acquired isolates (6.2%–7.0%). Conclusion. The Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends the use of alternative antimicrobial agents when vancomycin MIC is ≥ 2 µg/mL; in this study, only 53.6% of the isolates tested using Vitek 2 showed a high MIC in the broth microdilution method. Accurate identification of the resistance profile is a key component of antimicrobial stewardship programs. Therefore, to reduce inappropriate antibiotic use and mitigate the emergence of resistant strains, we recommend using complementary tests such as E-test or Broth microdilution to verify the MIC before administering second-line antibiotics. Strengths. (1) We compared the categorical agreement between different methods measuring MRSA MICs level. (2) Physicians should incorporate this information and consider a complementary test to verify the appropriateness of the decision of shifting vancomycin to second-line antibiotic treatment to improve patients’ prognosis. (3) MRSA-vancomycin MICs at a cutoff of 2 µg/mL obtained using Vitek II exhibited a higher sensitivity level and negative predictive value than those obtained using E-test in the prediction of categorical agreement with standard broth microdilution. Limitation. (1) Our research was based on a single hospital-based study. (2) The MRSA strains in this study were stored for more than 12 months after isolation. (3) We did not collect information on clinical prognosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing numbers of pathogenic bacteria acquiring multidrug resistance are posing the challenges to develop novel therapeutic approaches. Photodynamic bacterial inactivation assaults multiple subcellular targets of pathogenic bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, with low tendency to induce further resistance. A wide range of aPDI photosensitizers were investigated for localized infections, including endogenous porphyrins and encapsulated sensitizers in nanoparticles. This mini review presents the concepts of aPDI, a field consisting of more than 3000 research articles published over 30 years. Mutated PBP membrane enzymes of multiantibiotic resistant S. aureus are plausible targets of aPDI. Synergistic aPDI using simultaneously DP, light irradiation and the antibiotic oxacillin, was recently described, eliminating temporarily oxacillin resistance. Additive antimicrobial effects were achieved with DP‐aPDI combined with additional classes of antibiotics. We propose that mutual aPDI adjuvant with antibiotics or other toxic molecules is opening a new therapeutic window for topical life‐threatening infections, without induction of further resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research study investigated the susceptibility of common mastitis pathogens--obtained from clinical mastitis cases on 58 Northern German dairy farms--to routinely used antimicrobials. The broth microdilution method was used for detecting the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration(MIC)ofStreptococcus agalactiae (n=51),Streptococcus dysgalactiae (n=54),Streptococcusuberis (n = 50), Staphylococcus aureus (n = 85), non-aureus staphylococci (n = 88), Escherichia coli (n = 54) and Klebsiella species (n = 52). Streptococci and staphylococci were tested against cefquinome, cefoperazone, cephapirin, penicillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cefalexin/kanamycin. Besides cefquinome and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, Gram-negative pathogens were examined for their susceptibility to marbofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. The examined S. dysgalactiae isolates exhibited the comparatively lowest MICs. S. uberis and S. agalactiae were inhibited at higher amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and cephapirin concentration levels, whereas S. uberis isolates additionally exhibited elevated cefquinome MICs. Most Gram-positive mastitis pathogens were inhibited at higher cloxacillin than oxacillin concentrations. The MICs of Gram-negative pathogens were higher than previously reported, whereby 7.4%, 5.6% and 11.1% of E. coli isolates had MICs above the highest concentrations tested for cefquinome, marbofloxacin and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, respectively. Individual isolates showed MICs at comparatively higher concentrations, leading to the hypothesis that a certain amount of mastitis pathogens on German dairy farms might be resistant to frequently used antimicrobials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incidence of fungal infections has been steadily increasing in recent years. Systemic mycoses are characterized by the highest mortality. At the same time, the frequency of infections caused by drug-resistant strains and new pathogens e.g., Candida auris increases. An alternative to medicines may be essential oils, which can have a broad antimicrobial spectrum. Rich in the essential oils are plants from the Lamiaceae family. In this review are presented antifungal activities of essential oils from 72 Lamiaceae plants. More than half of these have good activity (minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) < 1000 μg/mL) against fungi. The best activity (MICs < 100) have essential oils from some species of the genera Clinopodium, Lavandula, Mentha, Thymbra, and Thymus. In some cases were observed significant discrepancies between different studies. In the review are also shown the most important compounds of described essential oils. To the chemical components most commonly found as the main ingredients include β-caryophyllene (41 plants), linalool (27 plants), limonene (26), β-pinene (25), 1,8-cineole (22), carvacrol (21), α-pinene (21), p-cymene (20), γ-terpinene (20), and thymol (20). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have been reported on today's ubiquitous presence of antibiotics in surface waters causing the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria. Advanced water treatment procedures aim at the complete prevention and elimination of antibiotics from entering natural water bodies. In this study, photoinduced degradation processes using UVC-irradiation were applied toward selected fluoroquinolone, tetracycline, macrolide, and sulfonamide antibiotics. Photodegradation products were elucidated using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). Rate constants and quantum efficiencies were determined for the active substances and their photo-transformation products. As a measure of ecotoxicity, minimum inhibitory and half-maximal inhibitory concentrations were determined against the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens and the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis in a standard assay format. These values were further recorded as a function of UV exposure time. The irradiation time-dependent increase of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values agreed well with the kinetic models. After 10 min of irradiation, the compound solutions ceased to inhibit bacterial cell growth, indicating removal of the pharmaceutical activity. These findings were found in agreement with quantitative structure–activity relationship analysis. The combination of microbiological activity testing, molecular structure analysis, chemical kinetic investigation, and quantitative structure–activity relationship models proved to be able to predict irradiation times and evaluate potential ecotoxicological hazard of the irradiated drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Respiratory infection is highly prevalent in HIV-infected patients and S. pneumoniae was a leading cause. The aim of this study was to isolate and identify Streptococcus pneumoniae associated with pulmonary infection among HIV Clients Attending Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital (AKTH). A total of 300 samples comprising sample from 180 HIV seropositive patients and 120 HIV seronegative patients as a (control) were enrolled in this study.) For the 180 HIV seropositive patients, 105(58.3%) were females, and 75(41.7%) were males. Among the HIV negative subjects 64(53.3%) were males and 56(46.7%) were females. The incident of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates associated with pneumonia in HIV/AIDS seropositive patients in relation to age group in this study showed the higher prevalence of 15(51.72%), among the age groups of 30-39, had the highest of prevalence of 15(51.72%), which occur more common in HIV infected patients while for HIV seronegative patients age group 10-19 had the highest incidence of 7(29.17%).Result showed no significant difference in the prevalence of S .pneumoniae among the HIV seropositive and seronegative patients (P > 0.05) .Antimicrobial susceptibility showed that Ciprofloxacin 25(86.2%), was found to be most active invitro against the isolates followed by Oxacillin 21(72.4%), Augmentin19 (65.5), Chloramphenicol 15(51.7%). Tetracycline, 14(48.3%), Clindamycin 14(48.3) and Erythromycin 10(34.5%). Result showed no significant difference in the levels of antibiotic susceptibilities and resistance observed (p > 0.05). The CD4 cells counts for the HIV seropositve patients were 161(89.4%) 350 cells/ml and 19(10.6%) <350 cells/m recorded as normal and low respectively. There was significant difference (p <0.05) for the CD4 cells counts of the study population with the prevalence of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates among the HIV seropositive patients (P 0.000 <0.05). PCR amplification for Streptococcus pneumoniae penicillin resistance genes showed that Only 2(33.3%) out of 6 resistant isolates possed the pneumococcal pbp2b resistance gene. According to the findings, the pbp2b gene can play a role of fundamentalimportance in the resistance of S. pneumoniae. Modify heterogeneity in antibiotic use, which several antibiotics are taken in a rotation against taking just 1 antibiotic such that isolates resistant to 1 antibiotic are killed when the subsequent antibiotic is taken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standard antimicrobial susceptibility tests used to determine bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics are growth dependent and time consuming. The long incubation time required for standard tests may render susceptibility results irrelevant, particularly for patients infected with lethal bacteria that are slow growing on agar but progress rapidly in vivo, such as Yersinia pestis. Here, we present an alternative approach for the rapid determination of antimicrobial susceptibility, based on the quantification of the changes in the expression levels of specific marker genes following exposure to growth-inhibiting concentrations of the antibiotic, using Y. pestis and ciprofloxacin as a model. The marker genes were identified by transcriptomic DNA microarray analysis of the virulent Y. pestis Kimberley53 strain after exposure to specific concentrations of ciprofloxacin for various time periods. We identified several marker genes that were induced following exposure to growth-inhibitory concentrations of ciprofloxacin, and we confirmed the marker expression profiles at additional ciprofloxacin concentrations using quantitative RT-PCR. Eleven candidate marker transcripts were identified, of which four mRNA markers were selected for a rapid quantitative RT-PCR susceptibility test that correctly determined the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values and the categories of susceptibility of several Y. pestis strains and isolates harboring various ciprofloxacin MIC values. The novel molecular susceptibility test requires just 2 h of antibiotic exposure in a 7-h overall test time, in contrast to the 24 h of antibiotic exposure required for a standard microdilution test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eight chromium resistant bacteria were isolated from a dry fly ash sample of DVC-MTPS thermal power plant located in Bankura, West Bengal, India. These isolates displayed different degrees of chromate reduction under aerobic conditions. According to 16S rDNA gene analysis, five of them were Staphylococcus, two were Bacillus and one was Micrococcus. The minimum inhibitory concentration towards chromium and the ability to reduce hexavalent chromium to trivalent chromium was highest in Staphylococcus haemolyticus strain HMR17. All the strains were resistant to multiple heavy metals (As, Cu, Cd, Co, Zn, Mn, Pb and Fe) and reduced toxic hexavalent chromium to relatively non toxic trivalent chromium even in the presence of these multiple heavy metals. All of them showed resistance to different antibiotics. In a soil microcosm study, S. haemolyticus strain HMR17 completely reduced 4 mM hexavalent chromium within 7 days of incubation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multidrug resistance of heterotrophic bacteria isolated from an aquaculture farm effluent in Parangipettai, at the southeastern coast of India, was investigated. In the initial screening, 27 antibiotic-resistant strains were isolated. All the strains were tested for antibiotic susceptibility against chloramphenicol with varying concentrations. From these, two highly resistant strains, i.e. S1 and S5, were isolated. The selected strains were identified by 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing techniques and confirmed as Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus flexus. Both the antibiotic-resistant strains were further utilized for multidrug susceptibility test by using various antibiotics. These two strains showed antibiotic resistance to 14 of 17 antibiotics tested. Both microdilution assay and well assay methods were used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the sensitive strains. Both the tests were shown to be almost similar. Our study highlights the occurrence of multidrug-resistant bacteria in the shrimp farm effluents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biocidal activity of carbonic-acid corrosion inhibitors (CIs) based on fatty acids from different vegetable oils against bacterial cells that catalyze biocorrosion processes was investigated using the bioluminescent method for determining the intracellular ATP concentration. It was shown that all obtained CIs exhibited biocidal activity with the amide complexes of fatty acids being the most effective. Their activity was 4.6-fold higher than the activity of nonamide complexes. The minimal inhibitory concentration that causes the death of all bacterial groups was established for the majority of the CIs to be in the range 100-170 mg/mL, and the best biocidal properties against the oil-oxidizing bacteria of the Pseudomonas genus were observed for the CI prepared from the corn oil (27 mg/mL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One of the main causes of sexually transmitted diseases is group B β-hemolytic streptococci (GBS) multiplying in the genital tracts. Penicillin is the most common drug for the treatment of infections caused by these bacteria, but in patients suffering from Penicillin allergy, Erythromycin and Clindamycin are used as alternative therapeutic drugs against GBS. Recently, resistance to these drugs has been reported more often. In this study, efforts have been made to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of GBS. Methods: Modified Christie Atkins Munch-Petersen (CAMP) test was conducted on over 2400 samples of urine and discharge taken from vagina, urethra and prostate. The drug sensitivity was performed by double disk sensitivity tests to Bacitracin, Trimethoprim, and Sulfamethoxazole and then the resistant samples were investigated by E-test to determine the minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) value. Results: Twenty-three vaginal and 10 urethral discharge, 27urine and 6 prostatic secretion samples were GBS positive. The most symbiotic microorganisms with GBS were strains of Enterococci (90%), Staphylococcus saprophyticus (25%) and Candida albicans (6%). The disk diffusion method showed 18 cases with Penicillin resistance (MIC: 1.5 mg/ml). Conclusion: Taken together, GBS carriers' rate in this study was found 20.65% (8.24% men and 12.4% women). Furthermore, findings showed high-level resistance to Erythromycin and Clindamycin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ortadogu Medical Journal / Ortadogu Tip Dergisi is the property of Bastas and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Treating staphylococcal biofilm-associated infections is challenging. Based on the findings that compound 2 targeting the HK domain of Staphylococcus epidermidis YycG has bactericidal and antibiofilm activities against staphylococci, six newly synthesized derivatives were evaluated for their antibacterial activities. The six derivatives of compound 2 inhibited autophosphorylation of recombinant YycG′ and the IC values ranged from 24.2 to 71.2 μM. The derivatives displayed bactericidal activity against planktonic S. epidermidis or Staphylococcus aureus strains in the MIC range of 1.5-3.1 μM. All the derivatives had antibiofilm activities against the 6- and 24-h biofilms of S. epidermidis. Compared to the prototype compound 2, they had less cytotoxicity for Vero cells and less hemolytic activity for human erythrocytes. The derivatives showed antibacterial activities against clinical methicillin-resistant staphylococcal isolates. The structural modification of YycG inhibitors will assist the discovery of novel agents to eliminate biofilm infections and multidrug-resistant staphylococcal infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the investigation, a robust pharmacophore model to investigate structure-activity relationship of 1,4-benzodiazepine-2-ones derivatives was developed for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) using PHASE module of Schrodinger software. The pharmacophore model consists of five contours such as two aromatic rings (R), one hydrophobic hydrogen (H) and two hydrogen-bond acceptor (A) with discrete geometries. The generated pharmacophore model was used to derive a predictive atom-based three-dimensional quantitative structure-activity relationship (3D-QSAR) model for the studied data set. The obtained 3D-QSAR model has an excellent correlation coefficient value ( R = 0.97) along with good statistical significance as shown by high Fisher ratio ( F = 216.80). The model also exhibits good predictive power confirmed by the high value of cross-validated correlation coefficient ( Q = 0.80). To confirm the validity of the model further calculation of the enrichment factor and percentage recovery studies were calculated, which confirm the validity of the model. The findings of the QSAR study provide a set of guidelines for designing compounds with better HAT inhibitory activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kimchi fermentation is complex process which really depends on the composition of microfloa under the optimum ripening environment such as salt concentration, acidity, pH and temperature conditions. Most kinds of bacteria belonging to Lactobacillus group have been identified in kimchi, which continuously produce lactic acids after ripening and cause the change of kimchi tasty and physical texture. Green tea extract as a natural preservative was investigated on the antimicrobial activity and the change of pH, in terms of retardation of kimch fermentation. Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC), paper disc assay, bacterial growth, and pH change were tested against four microorgasnisms, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus sake, Lactobacillus plantarum, and Weissella koreensis. 2 mg/mL of green tea extract completely inhibited the growth of test organisms after 5-7 hours. Furthermore, it showed the maximized clear zone (24-34 mm) was observed at the 2mg/disc concentration. pH change resulted in a slow downward drift for fermentation period. Moreover, green tea extract showed long-term buffer effects for over 35 days (5 weeks) at 4°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of rhodanine-3-acetic acid derivatives were synthesized and investigated for their antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacteria including multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Among these compounds, 6k with a MIC of 2 μg/mL was as active as the standard drug (norfloxacin) but less active than oxacillin against S. aureus. The compounds 6b, 6e, 6h, 6k, 6n, and 6u presented better activities against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus than the standard drugs (norfloxacin and oxacillin), especially 6k with a MIC of 1 μg/mL. However, none of the compounds were active against gram-negative bacteria at 64 μg/mL. Graphical Abstract: This study presents a synthesis of novel rhodanine-3-acetic acid derivatives and their antibacterial activity.[Figure not available: see fulltext.] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichophyton rubrum, an anthropophilic dermatophyte fungus, is the predominant causative agent of superficial skin infections in human population. There are only scanty reports on drug susceptibility profiling of T. rubrum. Neither mechanisms for drug resistance development nor correlation between in vitro drug susceptibility and in vivo response to treatment is known for that species. In this study, changes in the in vitro susceptibilities to fluconazole (FLZ) and itraconazole (ITZ) among thirty T. rubrum clinical strains subjected to sequential passages in the presence or absence of the azoles were investigated. Each strain was passaged 12 times at 4-week intervals as three parallel cultures, maintained on a drug-free medium (1), and a medium containing FLZ (2) or ITZ (3) at subinhibitory concentrations. Susceptibility to FLZ and ITZ of the original strain and its 3 subcultures was determined by microdilution method. The MIC values of the two azoles remained unaltered for all T. rubrum strains tested, after 12 passages on a drug-free medium. Among the strains grown with FLZ, an increase in the MICs of FLZ and ITZ was noted in 17 (56.7 %) and 19 (63.3 %) strains, respectively. Increased MICs of ITZ and FLZ were demonstrated for 24 (80 %) and 20 (66.7 %) strains that were propagated with ITZ. The results indicate the capacity of T. rubrum to develop resistance toward the azoles after prolonged exposure to these drugs. Resistance of T. rubrum to azoles plays an important role in therapy failures and consequently contributes to persistence and chronicity of the infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Microbiology is the property of Canadian Science Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of GMS Hygiene & Infection Control is the property of German Medical Science Publishing House gGmbH and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

New compounds incorporating with the oxindole nucleus were synthesized via the reaction of substituted isatins [5-methyl-, 5-chloro- and 1-hydroxymethyl isatins] with different nucleophiles. The structures of the newly compounds were elucidated on the basis of FTIR, 1H NMR, 13CMR spectral data, GC/MS and chemical analysis. Investigation of antimicrobial activity of the new compounds was evaluated using broth dilution technique in terms of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) count against four pathogenic bacteria and two pathogenic fungi. Most of the new compounds are significantly active against bacteria and fungi. MIC showed that compound ( 4a) possesses higher effect on Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus than the selected antibacterial agent sulphamethoxazole, whereas compound ( 11c) possesses more activity against Gram-negative bacteria Shigella dysenterie. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural products are an inexhaustible source for drug discovery. However, the validation and selection of primary screening assays are vital to guarantee a selection of extracts or molecules with relevant pharmacological action and worthy of following up. The assay must be rapid, simple, easy to implement, and produce quick results and preferably at a low cost. In this work, we developed and validated a colorimetric microtiter assay using the resazurin viability dye. The parameters of the resazurin method for high-throughput screening (HTS) using natural extracts against Aspergillus fumigatus were optimized and set up. The extracts plus RPMI-1640 modified medium containing the spores and 0.002% resazurin were added per well. The fluorescence was read after 24 to 30 h of incubation. The resazurin proved to be as suitable as Alamar Blue for determining the minimal inhibitory concentration of different antifungals against A. fumigatus and effective to analyze fungicidal and fungistatic compounds. An HTS of 12 000 microbial extracts was carried out against two A. fumigatus strains, and 2.7% of the extracts displayed antifungal activity. Our group has been the first to use this methodology for screening a collection of natural extracts to identify compounds with antifungal activity against the medically important human pathogen A. fumigatus. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In an analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infected patients treated with arbekacin (ABK) only, Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) that were inhibited by low minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of amikacin (AMK) or gentamycin (GM) were eradicated by the end of the ABK treatment. On the other hand, GNB that were only inhibited by high MICs of AMK or GM persisted until the end of treatment with ABK only. Thus, ABK can be expected to be effective even in cases of mixed infection with GNB and MRSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi is the property of University of Kafkas, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi is the property of University of Kafkas, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

By investigating the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance characteristics of Gram-positive bacteria from organic and conventional keeping systems of laying hens, it was to be determined to what extent these properties are influenced by the different systems. For this purpose, a total of 799 cloacal swabs and 800 egg samples were examined. Prevalences for all selected bacteria from cloacal swabs were much the same for both organic and caged birds: Listeria spp. 1.3%[org] versus 1.6%[con]; Enterococcus spp. 95.5%[org] versus 97.5%[con]. Egg contents and eggshells were generally contaminated to a lesser extent, primarily with Enterococcus spp. Listeria isolates were susceptible to almost all tested antibiotics, only three Listeria innocua from conventional keepings were resistant to clindamycin; one isolate additionally to imipenem. High percentages of Enterococcus faecalis were resistant to doxycycline and macrolides. Enterococcus faecium proved to have high resistance rates to clindamycin, fosfomycin and erythromycin; 9.1% were even resistant to the reserve antibiotic synercid. Further, Enterococcus spp. showed higher resistance rates to doxycycline, erythromycin, fosfomycin and rifampicin. No glycopeptide resistant enterococci were detected. A correlation between keeping system and resistance/susceptibility rates could be demonstrated. In detail, E. faecalis from organic laying hen husbandries showed significant lower resistance prevalences to tylosin, streptomycin and doxycycline; susceptibility rates were higher for enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. Rifampicin and imipenem were more effective in isolates from conventional keepings ( P < 0.05). The amounts of resistant isolates of the Enterococcus raffinosus from organic farms were significantly lower, the amounts of sensitive isolates were significantly higher than from conventional farms concerning eight antibiotics ( P < 0.05). When comparing the susceptibility/resistance rates, as well as the mean minimum inhibitory concentrations values, the consistent tendency is that bacteria from organic layer flocks are more susceptible to antimicrobials. These results show that organic livestock farming plays a part in contributing to reduced antibiotic resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The medicinal use of genus Drosera, as an important antitussive for different respiratory diseases, has been known for centuries. Many of extracts from carnivorous plants exhibit various antibacterial and antifungal activities. Naphthoquinones containing extracts from Drosera have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, antileprosy, antisclerotic and anticancer properties. The aim of the present study was to detect antibacterial activity of Drosera rotundifolia against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by the testing of MIC. For the study six strains of microorganisms were selected and there were Gram-positive bacteria - Bacillus thuringiensis (CCM 19T), Clostridium perfringens (CCM 4991), and Listeria monocytogenes (CCM 4699), as well as and Gramnegative bacteria - Escherichia coli (CCM 3988), Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica (CCM 3807) and Yersinia enterocolitica (CCM 5671). Plant extracts were isolated from three plants of Drosera rotundifolia L. (S1, S2 and S3) in different time range. The most effective extract with MIC50 value of 17.07 μg.ml-1 was S3, while for MIC90 of 19.05 μg.ml-1 were extracts S2 and S3 exhibiting antimicrobial activity against Bacillus thuringiensis, Clostridium perfringens and Listeria monocytogenes. Extracts S1, S2 showed MIC50 value 25.53 μg.ml-1for all the microorganism tested, but S3 extract revealed the same antimicrobial activity against Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica and Escherichia coli. Extract S1 has MIC90 value of 27.14 μg.ml-1 against all the microorganism tested, but S2 and S3 shared the same MIC90 for Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica and Escherichia coli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, cuprous oxide nanoparticles of 30–50 nm in size were prepared in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). By taking Staphylococcus aureus ( S.a), which always causes a variety of suppurative infections and toxinoses in humans, as a model bioparticle, the negative bioeffect of nano-Cu2O on S.a cells was evaluated, and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by imitating the MIC of antibiotics. Cellularity and bactericidal effect were measured by flow cytometry (FCM), dark field light scattering imaging and SEM photography. The results showed that nano-Cu2O particles may, by absorbing on the cell surface, impair the cell wall, damage the cell membrane, and finally increase permeability of the cell membrane, thus leading to a decrease in the viability of bacteria in the nano-Cu2O solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of β-lactam-resistant bacteria in six different types of Portuguese cheese. The numbers of ampicillin resistant (AMPr) bacteria varied from 4.7 × 102 to 1.5 × 107 CFU/g. Within 172 randomly selected β-lactam-resistant bacteria, 44 resistant phenotypes were found and 31.4% were multidrug resistant. The majority (85%) of the isolates identified belonged to the Enterobacteriaceae family. The presence of the blaTEM gene was detected in 80.9% of the tested isolates. The results suggest that without thermal processing of the milk and good hygienic practices, cheese may act as a vehicle of transfer of β-lactam-resistant bacteria to the gastrointestinal tract of consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Every laboratory test needs validation by quality controls. For biocide susceptibility testing (BST), neither quality control (QC) strains nor QC ranges applicable to these strains are currently available. As QC strains, four well-defined laboratory reference strains (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC® 6538, Enterococcus hirae ATCC® 10541, Escherichia coli ATCC® 10536 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC® 15442), which have been used previously for biocide efficacy testing, were selected. In an interlaboratory trial with eleven participating laboratories, BST QC ranges should be developed for the aforementioned four strains and the four biocides benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine, octenidine and polyhexanide. The performance of three different lots of tryptic soy broth was explored using the broth microdilution method and the data were subsequently evaluated using the RangeFinder software. As a result, QC ranges were defined for all reference strain–biocide combinations, except for P. aeruginosa ATCC® 15442 with the two biocides chlorhexidine and polyhexanide. The development of the latter two QC ranges was not possible, due to the limited solubility of the biocides in the test range required for P. aeruginosa ATCC® 15442. The newly developed QC ranges comprise three to five dilution steps. The establishment of QC ranges will contribute to the validation of BST in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represent a promising and effective alternative for combating pathogens, having some advantages compared to conventional antibiotics. However, AMPs must also contend with complex and specialised Gram-negative bacteria envelops. The variety of lipopolysaccharide and phospholipid composition in Gram-negative bacteria strains and species are decisive characteristics regarding their susceptibility or resistance to AMPs. Such biological and structural barriers have created delays in tuning AMPs to deal with Gram-negative bacteria. This becomes even more acute because little is known about the interaction AMP–Gram-negative bacteria and/or AMPs' physicochemical characteristics, which could lead to obtaining selective molecules against Gram-negative bacteria. As a consequence, available AMPs usually have highly associated haemolytic and/or cytotoxic activity. Only one AMP has so far been FDA approved and another two are currently in clinical trials against Gram-negative bacteria. Such a pessimistic panorama suggests that efforts should be concentrated on the search for new molecules, designs and strategies for combating infection caused by this type of microorganism. This review has therefore been aimed at describing the currently available AMPs for combating Gram-negative bacteria, exploring the characteristics of these bacteria's cell envelop hampering the development of new AMPs, and offers a perspective regarding the challenges for designing new AMPs against Gram-negative bacteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between February 1993 and May 1994 we studied the prevalence of fungal vulvovaginitis among women attending the Obstetric and Gynecology Clinic of the University of Ancona. Out of the 222 patients, 18 (8.2%) women had symptomatic vaginitis and 24 (10.8%) were carriers. Candida albicans was the species most frequently isolated (44.2%), followed by Torulopsis glabrata (28%) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (16.2%), from symptomatic and carrier patients. The activity of acid proteinase was determined for C. albicans isolated from both symptomatic and carrier patients. All 13 carriers showed low activity for aspartyl proteinase (score 1+), while 5 of 6 symptomatic patients showed higher activity (score 2+), with a significant difference (p = 0.026). In general, isolates of T. glabrata and S. cerevisiae were less susceptible in vitro to fluconazole than isolates of C. albicans. We did not find any differences in fluconazole MIC results among the C. albicans strains isolated from symptomatic and carrier patients. On the other hand, the fluconazole MICs of T. glabrata and S. cerevisiae isolates showed statistically significant differences between symptomatic and carrier patients (p = 0.009 and p = 0.000, respectively). The differences in proteinase secretion between the isolates from symptomatic and carrier patients suggest a correlation between proteinase production and vaginal candidiasis caused by C. albicans. Torulopsis glabrata, however, was found to be the most common causative agent of vaginitis (7 out 19 episodes), followed by C. albicans (6 out of 19 episodes). Due to the varying patterns of antifungal susceptibility, mainly to fluconazole for the yeast isolates considered in this study, an in vitro susceptibility testing program might be useful for monitoring the outcome of this infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The drug concentration which inhibited 50% of growth (IC), the lowest drug concentration at which growth was less than 30% of that in a positive control well (IC), the visual minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), and the minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC), were applied to study the effects of fluconazole, itraconazole, ketoconazole, miconazole, flucytosine, and amphotericin B against 36 isolates of Candida spp. and Cryptococcus neoformans by a broth microdilution technique. When the recommendations established by the NCCLS Subcommittee on Antifungal Susceptibility Tests were applied for the visual reading of the microplates, the results were comparable with those obtained by the turbidimetric methods. Differences between MICs and ICs were observed with miconazole against strains of C. glabrata ( p=0.014) and with flucytosine against strains of C. neoformans ( p=0.041). Differences between MICs and ICs were observed with fluconazole against strains of C. albicans ( p=0.027), C. tropicalis ( p=0.046), and C. neoformans ( p=0.041); with miconazole against strains of C. glabrata ( p=0.014); and with amphotericin B against strains of C. parapsilosis ( p=0.025). Ten additional isolates of C. albicans from AIDS patients suffering from recurrent episodes of oral candidiasis and clinically resistant to fluconazole also were included in this study. The MICs of fluconazole of these strains were significantly higher than those of the control group ( p=0.003). When the turbidimetric parameters were applied for testing the in vitro activity of fluconazole against the above isolates, both IC and IC were capable of discriminating the strains of the two groups ( p=0.002, p=0.001, respectively). Only amphotericin B demonstrated fungicidal activity against all the tested yeasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial activity of GL (the aqueous extract from the carpophores of Ganoderma lucidum (F)K) was tested in vitro against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria by serial broth dilution method, and the antimicrobial activity was expressed by minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC). Among fifteen species of bacteria tested, the antimicrobial activity of GL was the most potent against Micrococcus luteus (MIC, 0.75 mg/ml). To investigate the effects of antimicrobial combinations of GL with four kinds of antibiotics (ampicillin, cefazolin, oxytetracycline and chloramphenicol), the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) was determined by checkerboard assay for each strain. The antimicrobial combinations of GL with four antibiotics resulted in additive effect in most instances, synergism in two instances, and antagonism in two instances. Synergism was obvserved when GL was combined with cefazolin against Bacillus subtilis and Klebsiella oxytoca. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Staphylococci are the most prevalent bacteria isolated from bovine mammary secretions. They not only originate from cases of intramammary infections, but also from teat canal, skin and other environmental sources. They are usually divided into coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) and Staphylococcus (S.) aureus. In contrast to the contagious nature of most S. aureus infections, the epidemiology of CNS is less clear. Results of our observational study suggest that both, CNS and S. aureus, can be associated with clinical and subclinical mastitis but may also appear as colonizers and remain undetected in cows without inflammatory signs. As a result, the consequences differ, especially with the increased emphasis on reducing antibiotic use as a means of limiting antimicrobial resistance (AMR). A positive S. aureus test result requires antibiotic treatment of infected cows after evaluation of the probability of bacteriological cure, and, where necessary, implementation of management strategies to limit new infections. In contrast, treatment of CNS in cows without increase in somatic cell count should be avoided. Thus, these findings emphasize the value of regular bacteriological examination of clinical and subclinical cases and a thorough evaluation of any staphylococcal presentation before treatment. Staphylococcus (S.) aureus is considered as a major mastitis pathogen, with considerable epidemiological information on such infections while the epidemiology of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) is more controversial. The aim of this study was to use matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) technology for identification of staphylococci isolated from bovine milk at species level and to characterize them in reference to presentation, somatic cell count (SCC), bacterial shedding (cfu) and antimicrobial resistance patterns. A total of 200 staphylococcal isolates (S. aureus n = 100; CNS n = 100) originating from aseptically collected quarter milk samples from different quarters of dairy cows were included in the study. They originated from cases of clinical (CM) and subclinical mastitis (SCM) or were isolated from milk with SCC ≤ 100,000 cells/mL in pure culture. We found staphylococci predominantly in cases of SCM (n = 120). In low-SCC cows, 12 S. aureus and 32 CNS isolates were detected. Eighteen percent of each were associated with CM. Eleven CNS species were identified, S. chromogenes (n = 26) and S. xylosus (n = 40) predominated. CNS, particularly those in low-SCC cows, showed higher MIC90 (minimal inhibitory concentration) values for penicillin, ampicillin, cefoperazone, pirlimycin and marbofloxacin. Based on the present results, a careful interpretation of laboratory results is recommended to avoid antimicrobial therapy of staphylococci without clinical relevance and to ensure prudent use of antimicrobials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]