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Small-scale turbulent mixing drives the upwelling of deep water masses in the abyssal ocean as part of the global overturning circulation1. However, the processes leading to mixing and the pathways through which this upwelling occurs remain insufficiently understood. Recent observational and theoretical work2–5 has suggested that deep-water upwelling may occur along the ocean’s sloping seafloor; however, evidence has, so far, been indirect. Here we show vigorous near-bottom upwelling across isopycnals at a rate of the order of 100 metres per day, coupled with adiabatic exchange of near-boundary and interior fluid. These observations were made using a dye released close to the seafloor within a sloping submarine canyon, and they provide direct evidence of strong, bottom-focused diapycnal upwelling in the deep ocean. This supports previous suggestions that mixing at topographic features, such as canyons, leads to globally significant upwelling3,6–8. The upwelling rates observed were approximately 10,000 times higher than the global average value required for approximately 30 × 106 m3 s−1 of net upwelling globally9.A dye-release experiment within a sloping submarine canyon provides direct evidence that vigorous mixing at topographic features, such as canyons, leads to rapid diapycnal upwelling of deep water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the Earth's climate. However, there are few long time series of observations of the AMOC, and the study of the mechanisms driving its variability depends mainly on numerical simulations. Here, we use four ocean circulation estimates produced by different data-driven approaches of increasing complexity to analyse the seasonal to decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC across the Greenland–Portugal OVIDE (Observatoire de la Variabilité Interannuelle à DÉcennale) line since 1993. We decompose the MOC strength variability into a velocity-driven component due to circulation changes and a volume-driven component due to changes in the depth of the overturning maximum isopycnal. We show that the variance of the time series is dominated by seasonal variability, which is due to both seasonal variability in the volume of the AMOC limbs (linked to the seasonal cycle of density in the East Greenland Current) and to seasonal variability in the transport of the Eastern Boundary Current. The decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC is mainly caused by changes in velocity, which after the mid-2000s are partly offset by changes in the volume of the AMOC limbs. This compensation means that the decadal variability of the AMOC is weaker and therefore more difficult to detect than the decadal variability of its velocity-driven and volume-driven components, which is highlighted by the formalism that we propose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore historical variability in the volume of Labrador Sea Water (LSW) using ECCO, an ocean state estimate configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm). The model's adjoint, a linearization of the MITgcm, is set up to output the lagged sensitivity of the water mass volume to surface boundary conditions. This allows us to reconstruct the evolution of LSW volume over recent decades using historical surface wind stress, heat, and freshwater fluxes. Each of these boundary conditions contributes significantly to the LSW variability that we recover, but these impacts are associated with different geographical fingerprints and arise over a range of time lags. We show that the volume of LSW accumulated in the Labrador Sea exhibits a delayed response to surface wind stress and buoyancy forcing outside the convective interior of the Labrador Sea at important locations in the North Atlantic Ocean. In particular, patterns of wind and surface density anomalies can act as a "traffic controller" and regulate the North Atlantic Current's (NAC's) transport of warm and saline subtropical water masses that are precursors for the formation of LSW. This propensity for a delayed response of LSW to remote forcing allows us to predict a limited yet substantial and significant fraction of LSW variability at least 1 year into the future. Our analysis also enables us to attribute LSW variability to different boundary conditions and to gain insight into the major mechanisms that contribute to volume anomalies in this deep water mass. We point out the important role of key processes that promote the formation of LSW in both the Irminger and Labrador seas: buoyancy loss and preconditioning along the NAC pathway and in the Iceland Basin, the Irminger Sea, and the Nordic Seas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA) is a region of high anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) storage per unit area. Although the average Cant distribution is well documented in this region, the Cant pathways towards the ocean interior remain largely unresolved. We used observations from three Argo-O2 floats spanning 2013-2018 within the SPNA, combined with existing neural networks and back-calculations, to determine the Cant evolution along the float pathways from a quasi-lagrangian perspective. Our results show that Cant follows a stepwise deepening along its way through the SPNA. The upper subtropical waters have a stratified Cant distribution that homogenizes within the winter mixed layer by Subpolar Mode Water formation in the Iceland Basin. In the Irminger and Labrador Basins, the high-Cant footprint (> 55 μmol kg−1) is mixed down to 1400 and 1800 dbar, respectively, by deep winter convection. As a result, the maximum Cant concentration is diluted (<45 μmol kg−1). Our study highlights the role of water mass transformation as a first-order mechanism for Cant penetration into the ocean. It also demonstrates the potential of Argo-O2 observations, combined with existing methods, to obtain reliable Cant estimates, opening ways to study the oceanic Cant content at high spatio-temporal resolution.Large emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide have been partly absorbed by the oceans. Here, the authors use Argo-O2 floats combined with existing methods to study the distribution of this anthropogenic CO2 in the North Atlantic Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the Earth's climate. However, there are few long series of observations of the AMOC and the study of the mechanisms driving its variability depends mainly on numerical simulations. Here, we use four ocean circulation estimates produced by different data-driven approaches of increasing complexity to analyze the seasonal to decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC across the Greenland-Portugal OVIDE line since 1993. We show that the variance of the time series is dominated by seasonal variability, which is due to both seasonal variability in the volume of the AMOC limbs (linked to the seasonal cycle of density in the East Greenland Current) and to seasonal variability in the transport of the Eastern Boundary Current. The decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC is mainly caused by changes in velocity, which after the mid-2000s are partly offset by changes in the volume of the AMOC limbs. This compensation means that the decadal variability of the AMOC is weaker and therefore more difficult to detect than the decadal variability of its velocity-driven and volume-driven components, which is highlighted by the formalism that we propose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key component of the Earth's climate. However, there are few long series of observations of the AMOC and the study of the mechanisms driving its variability depends mainly on numerical simulations. Here, we use four ocean circulation estimates produced by different data-driven approaches of increasing complexity to analyze the seasonal to decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC across the Greenland–Portugal OVIDE line since 1993. We show that the variance of the time series is dominated by seasonal variability, which is due to both seasonal variability in the volume of the AMOC limbs (linked to the seasonal cycle of density in the East Greenland Current) and to seasonal variability in the transport of the Eastern Boundary Current. The decadal variability of the subpolar AMOC is mainly caused by changes in velocity, which after the mid-2000s are partly offset by changes in the volume of the AMOC limbs. This compensation means that the decadal variability of the AMOC is weaker and therefore more difficult to detect than the decadal variability of its velocity-driven and volume-driven components, which is highlighted by the formalism that we propose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore historical variability in the volume of Labrador Sea Water (LSW) using ECCO, an ocean state estimate configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm). The model's adjoint, a linearization of the MITgcm, is set up to output the lagged sensitivity of the watermass volume to surface boundary conditions. This allows us to reconstruct the evolution of LSW volume over recent decades using historical surface wind stress, heat, and freshwater fluxes. Each of these boundary conditions contributes significantly to the LSW variability that we recover, but these impacts are associated with different geographical fingerprints and arise over a range of time lags. We show that the volume of LSW accumulated in the Labrador Sea exhibits a delayed response to surface wind stress and buoyancy forcing outside the convective interior of the Labrador Sea, at key locations in the North Atlantic Ocean. In particular, winds and surface density anomalies affect the North Atlantic Current's (NAC) transport of warm and saline subtropical water masses that are precursors for the formation of LSW. This propensity for a delayed response of LSW to remote forcing allows us to predict a substantial fraction of LSW variability at least a year into the future. Our analysis also enables us to attribute LSW variability to different boundary conditions and to gain insight into the major mechanisms that drive volume anomalies in this deep watermass. We point out the important role of buoyancy loss and preconditioning along the NAC pathway, in the Iceland Basin, the Irminger Sea, and the Nordic Seas, processes which facilitate the formation of LSW both in the Irminger and in the Labrador Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore historical variability in the volume of Labrador Sea Water (LSW) using ECCO, an ocean state estimate configuration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm). The model's adjoint, a linearization of the MITgcm, is set up to output the lagged sensitivity of the watermass volume to surface boundary conditions. This allows us to reconstruct the evolution of LSW volume over recent decades using historical surface wind stress, heat, and freshwater fluxes. Each of these boundary conditions contributes significantly to the LSW variability that we recover, but these impacts are associated with different geographical fingerprints and arise over a range of time lags. We show that the volume of LSW accumulated in the Labrador Sea exhibits a delayed response to surface wind stress and buoyancy forcing outside the convective interior of the Labrador Sea, at key locations in the North Atlantic Ocean. In particular, winds and surface density anomalies affect the North Atlantic Current's (NAC) transport of warm and saline subtropical water masses that are precursors for the formation of LSW. This propensity for a delayed response of LSW to remote forcing allows us to predict a substantial fraction of LSW variability at least a year into the future. Our analysis also enables us to attribute LSW variability to different boundary conditions and to gain insight into the major mechanisms that drive volume anomalies in this deep watermass. We point out the important role of buoyancy loss and preconditioning along the NAC pathway, in the Iceland Basin, the Irminger Sea, and the Nordic Seas, processes which facilitate the formation of LSW both in the Irminger and in the Labrador Sea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use an ocean general circulation model and its adjoint to analyze the causal chain linking sea surface buoyancy anomalies in the Labrador Sea to variability in the deep branch of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) on inter-annual timescales. Our study highlights the importance of the North Atlantic Current (NAC) for the north-to-south connectivity in the AMOC and for the meridional transport of Lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW). We identify two mechanisms that allow the Labrador Sea to impact velocities in the LNADW layer. The first mechanism involves a passive advection of surface buoyancy anomalies from the Labrador Sea towards the eastern subpolar gyre by the background NAC. The second mechanism plays a dominant role and involves a dynamical response of the NAC to surface density anomalies originating in the Labrador Sea; the NAC adjustment modifies the northward transport of salt and heat and exerts a strong positive feedback, amplifying the upper ocean buoyancy anomalies. The two mechanisms spin up/down the subpolar gyre on a timescale of years, while boundary trapped waves rapidly communicate this signal to the subtropics and trigger an adjustment of LNADW transport on a timescale of months. The NAC and the eastern subpolar gyre play an essential role in both mechanisms linking the Labrador Sea with LNADW transport variability and the subtropical AMOC. We thus reconcile two apparently contradictory paradigms about AMOC connectivity: (1) Labrador Sea buoyancy anomalies drive AMOC variability; (2) water mass transformation is largest in the eastern subpolar gyre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iceland–Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) is exported from the Nordic Seas into the Iceland Basin to feed the lower limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation. The Bight Fracture Zone (BFZ) is known to be a major route for ISOW toward the Irminger Sea, but the role of this gateway in the evolution of ISOW properties over the subpolar gyre is unclear. A combination of ship-based and Deep-Argo data gathered between 2015 and 2018 allows us to investigate the pathways and hydrographic evolution of ISOW as it flows through the BFZ, as well as its influence on the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) properties in the Irminger Sea. The ISOW flow through the BFZ amounts to 0.8 ± 0.2 Sv and is mainly fed by the lighter part of the ISOW layer flowing west of 29–30 ∘ W as part of the East Reykjanes Ridge Current in the Iceland Basin. In the rift valley of the BFZ, between an eastern and a western sill, the bathymetry of the BFZ shapes a cyclonic circulation along which the ISOW layer is homogenized. The largest changes in ISOW properties are however observed downstream of the western sill, at the exit of the BFZ. There, ISOW is mixed isopycnally with comparatively fresher NADW circulating in the Irminger Sea. Hence, our analysis reveals the key role of the BFZ through-flow in the salinification of the NADW in the Irminger Current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics of the CISE-LOCEAN seawater isotope dataset (δ18 O, δ2 H, referred to as δ D) are presented (10.17882/71186; Waterisotopes-CISE-LOCEAN, 2021). This dataset covers the time period from 1998 to 2021 and currently includes close to 8000 data entries, all with δ18 O, three-quarters of them also with δ D, associated with a date stamp, space stamp, and usually a salinity measurement. Until 2010, samples were analyzed by isotopic ratio mass spectrometry and since then mostly by cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS). Instrumental uncertainty in this dataset is usually as low as 0.03 ‰ for δ18 O and 0.15 ‰ for δ D. An additional uncertainty is related to the isotopic composition of the in-house standards that are used to convert data to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) scale. Different comparisons suggest that since 2010 the latter have remained within at most 0.03 ‰ for δ18 O and 0.20 ‰ for δ D. Therefore, combining the two uncertainties suggests a standard deviation of at most 0.05 ‰ for δ18 O and 0.25 ‰ for δ D. For some samples, we find that there has been evaporation during collection and storage, requiring adjustment of the isotopic data produced by CRDS, based on d -excess (δ D - 8×δ18 O). This adjustment adds an uncertainty in the respective data of roughly 0.05 ‰ for δ18 O and 0.10 ‰ for δ D. This issue of conservation of samples is certainly a strong source of quality loss for parts of the database, and "small" effects may have remained undetected. The internal consistency of the database can be tested for subsets of the dataset when time series can be obtained (such as in the southern Indian Ocean or North Atlantic subpolar gyre). These comparisons suggest that the overall uncertainty of the spatially (for a cruise) or temporally (over a year) averaged data is less than 0.03 ‰ for δ18 O and 0.15 ‰ for δ D. However, 18 comparisons with duplicate seawater data analyzed in other laboratories or with other datasets in the intermediate and deep ocean suggest a larger scatter. When averaging the 18 comparisons done for δ18 O, we find a difference of 0.082 ‰ with a standard error of 0.016 ‰. Such an average difference is expected due to the adjustments applied at LOCEAN to saline water data produced either by CRDS or isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS), but the scatter found suggests that care is needed when merging datasets from different laboratories. Examples of time series in the surface North Atlantic subpolar gyre illustrate the temporal changes in water isotope composition that can be detected with a carefully validated dataset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shipboard hydrography along the A25‐Ovide section (2002–2018) is combined with a high‐resolution mooring array (2014–2020) and a regional fleet of Deep‐Argo floats (2016–2021) to describe temperature changes of overflow‐derived water masses in the Irminger Sea. Removing dynamical influences enables to identify a new statistically significant trend reversal in Iceland Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) and Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW) core temperatures in the mid‐2010s. A basin‐wide cooling trend of −16 ± 6 m°C yr−1 during 2016–2021—but reaching as strong as −44 ± 13 m°C yr−1 for DSOW in recent years—is found to interrupt a warming phase that was prevailing since the late 1990s. The absence of an apparent reversal in the Nordic Seas and the faster changes detected in DSOW compared to ISOW point out the entrainment of subpolar signals within the overflows near the Greenland‐Iceland‐Scotland sills as a most likely driver. Plain Language Summary: The North Atlantic Deep Water is one of the most voluminous water masses of the global ocean. Its deepest constituent—the Lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW)—forms in the Nordic Seas before cascading into the North Atlantic at the Greenland‐Iceland‐Scotland sills and progressing south toward the Southern Ocean. The temperature and salinity of LNADW are known to obey decadal trends in response to forcing in its source regions as well as subsequent mixing with surrounding and overlying water masses during its Atlantic journey. Here, repeated measurements from oceanographic vessels, continuous monitoring with moored instrumentations, and autonomous Deep‐Argo floats in the Irminger Sea (east of Greenland) during 2002–2021 are used to reveal a new warming‐to‐cooling reversal of LNADW in 2014. This signal, which presumably originates in the entrainment of upper and intermediate ocean variability near the Greenland‐Iceland‐Scotland sills, will progressively travel southward within the lower branch of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation. Key Points: Shipboard, Deep‐Argo, and mooring data capture a warming‐to‐cooling reversal of Lower North Atlantic Deep Water in the Irminger Sea in 2014The cooling trend is statistically significant and has likely accelerating in recent years, reaching −16 ± 6 m°C yr−1 during 2016–2021Denmark Strait Overflow Water has warmed and cooled significantly faster than Iceland Scotland Overflow Water during 2002–2021 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A significant fraction of the Eulerian‐mean downwelling feeding the lower limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) occurs along the subpolar North Atlantic continental slopes and is maintained by along‐boundary densification and large‐scale geostrophic balance. We here use Argo and shipboard hydrography data to map the 2002–2015 long‐term mean density field along the boundary via a dedicated optimal interpolation tool. The overall downstream densification implies an Eulerian‐mean downwelling of 2.12 ± 0.43 Sv at 1100 m depth between Denmark Strait and Flemish Cap. A clear regional pattern emerges with downwelling in the Irminger Sea and western Labrador Sea and upwelling along Greenland western continental slope. Comparisons with independent cross‐basin estimates confirm that vertical overturning transport across the marginal seas of the subpolar North Atlantic mainly occurs along the continental slopes, and suggest the usefulness of hydrographic data in providing quantitative information about the sinking branch of the AMOC. Plain Language Summary: The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), a critical component of the Earth's climate system due to its role in redistributing heat and freshwater between low and high latitudes, is anticipated to decline over the next century. The downwelling of surface waters in the subpolar North Atlantic that feeds the lower limb of AMOC is a vital yet vulnerable process. As revealed by previous theoretical and modeling work, the overall downstream densification along the boundary results in a significant boundary downwelling. Here, the density along the western boundary between Denmark Strait and Flemish Cap is reconstructed to provide a first observation‐based description of the regional and seasonal distribution of this boundary‐focused downwelling in the subpolar North Atlantic. This study not only provides valuable insights into how to improve existing ocean circulation theories of overturning but also contributes to a solid benchmark for evaluating how climate models simulate the sinking branch of the AMOC. Key Points: The long‐term mean full‐depth density field of the subpolar North Atlantic's boundary is reconstructed from hydrography dataThe along‐boundary densification results in a 2.12 ± 0.43 Sv Eulerian‐mean downwelling between Denmark Strait and Flemish CapA first observation‐based regional and seasonal distribution of near‐boundary Eulerian‐mean downwelling is provided [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) is exported from the Nordic Seas into the Iceland Basin to feed the lower limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation. The Bight Fracture Zone (BFZ) is known to be a major route for ISOW toward the Irminger Sea, but the role of this gateway in the evolution of ISOW properties over the subpolar gyre is unclear. A combination of ship-based and Deep-Argo data gathered between 2015 and 2018 allows us to investigate the pathways and hydrological evolution of ISOW as it flows through the BFZ, as well as its influence on the ISOW properties in the Irminger Sea. The ISOW flow through the BFZ amounts to 0.76 ± 0.2 Sv and is mainly fed by the lighter part of the ISOW layer flowing west of 29-30°W as part of the East Reykjanes Ridge Current in the Iceland Basin. In the rift valley of the BFZ, between an eastern and a western sill, the bathymetry of the BFZ shapes a cyclonic circulation along which the ISOW layer is homogenised. The largest changes in ISOW properties are however observed downstream of the western sill, at the exit of the BFZ. There, ISOW is mixed isopycnally with comparatively fresher ISOW from the Irminger Sea and lies over denser ISOW that entered the Irminger Sea south of the BFZ. These fresher ISOW result from the erosion of the ISOW core by mixing with inflows from the interior of the Irminger Sea as ISOW flows northward from the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone. Hence, our analysis reveals the key role of the BFZ through-flow in compensating these inputs of fresh inflows along the northward Irminger Current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) is exported from the Nordic Seas into the Iceland Basin to feed the lower limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation. The Bight Fracture Zone (BFZ) is known to be a major route for ISOW toward the Irminger Sea, but the role of this gateway in the evolution of ISOW properties over the subpolar gyre is unclear. A combination of ship-based and Deep-Argo data gathered between 2015 and 2018 allows us to investigate the pathways and hydrological evolution of ISOW as it flows through the BFZ, as well as its influence on the ISOW properties in the Irminger Sea. The ISOW flow through the BFZ amounts to 0.76 ± 0.2 Sv and is mainly fed by the lighter part of the ISOW layer flowing west of 29-30°W as part of the East Reykjanes Ridge Current in the Iceland Basin. In the rift valley of the BFZ, between an eastern and a western sill, the bathymetry of the BFZ shapes a cyclonic circulation along which the ISOW layer is homogenised. The largest changes in ISOW properties are however observed downstream of the western sill, at the exit of the BFZ. There, ISOW is mixed isopycnally with comparatively fresher ISOW from the Irminger Sea and lies over denser ISOW that entered the Irminger Sea south of the BFZ. These fresher ISOW result from the erosion of the ISOW core by mixing with inflows from the interior of the Irminger Sea as ISOW flows northward from the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone. Hence, our analysis reveals the key role of the BFZ through-flow in compensating these inputs of fresh inflows along the northward Irminger Current. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The characteristics of the CISE-LOCEAN sea water isotope data set (δ18O, δ²H, later designed as δD) are presented. This data set covers the time period from 1998 to 2021 and currently includes close to 8000 data entries, all with δ18O, three quarters of them also with δD, associated with a time and space stamp and usually a salinity measurement. Until 2010, samples were analysed by isotopic ratio mass spectrometry, and since then mostly by cavity ring-down spectroscopy (CRDS). Instrumental uncertainty on individual data in this dataset is usually with a standard deviation as low as 0.03 / 0.15 ‰ for δ18O and δD. An additional uncertainty is related to uncertain isotopic composition of the in-house standards that are used to convert daily data into the VSMOW scale. Different comparisons suggest that since 2010 the latter have remained within at most 0.03 / 0.20 ‰ for δ18O and δD. Therefore, combining the two suggests a standard deviation of at most 0.05 / 0.25 ‰ for δ18O / δD. Finally, for some samples, we find that there has been evaporation during collection and storage, requiring adjustment of the isotopic data produced by CRDS, based on d-excess. This adds an uncertainty on the adjusted data of roughly 0.05 / 0.10 ‰ on δ18O and δD. This issue of conservation of samples is certainly a strong source of quality loss for parts of the database, and 'small' effects may have remained undetected. The internal consistency of the database can be tested for subsets of the dataset, when time series can be obtained (such as in the southern Indian Ocean or North Atlantic subpolar gyre). These comparisons suggest that the overall uncertainty of the spatially (for a cruise) or temporally (over a year) averaged data is on the order of or less than 0.03 / 0.15 ‰ for δ18O / δD. On the other hand, 17 comparisons with duplicate sea water data analysed in other laboratories or with other data sets in deep regions suggest a larger scatter. When averaging the 17 comparisons done for δ18O, we find a difference close to the adjustment applied at LOCEAN to convert salty water data from the activity to the concentration scale. Such a difference is expected, but the scatter found suggests that care is needed when merging datasets from different laboratories. Examples of time series in the surface North Atlantic subpolar gyre illustrate the temporal changes in water isotope composition that can be detected with a carefully validated dataset. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the North Atlantic subtropical gyre, the Eighteen Degree Water (EDW) is a voluminous heat reservoir, submerged under a seasonal pycnocline that can be progressively removed through the winter, allowing EDW ventilation in the early spring. We target the EDW formation extremes, namely 2004–2005, 2009–2010, and 2012–2013 for the strong years, and 2007–2008, 2008–2009, 2011–2012, and 2013–2014 for the weak years. We employ gridded hydrographic datasets mainly measured by Argo floats over the last 20 years, and provide a synthetic study on the extreme events of strong and weak EDW formation of this time period. We found that the Ekman transport is the indicator and driving mechanism explaining these extremes. Strong (Weak) EDW formation years correspond with atmospheric patterns resembling NAO− (NAO+), attributed to a strong (weak) winter air‐sea surface heat loss, and a strong (weak) winter heat loss due to Ekman transport. Further, we show that such extreme Ekman advection patterns can be linked to mid‐latitude storms, of which both intensity and duration have an impact on the extreme of EDW ventilation in the western subtropical North Atlantic. To yield a strong EDW formation, it requires a large winter heat deficit due to Ekman divergence, which can be sufficiently represented by numbers of strong winter storms, most notably, remnants of hurricanes and US east coast snowstorms. Meanwhile, to yield a weak EDW formation, apart from weak atmospheric forcings, a remnant positive heat content anomaly carried through from previous years would serve as an unfavorable preconditioning, hindering the EDW formation. Plain Language Summary: The EDW is the most voluminous water body in the North Atlantic subtropical region. It is critical in the biology cycle and the ocean dynamics. For most of the year, EDW is buried underneath the sea surface. In winter, when sea surface loses enough heat, sinking cold water reaches the EDW bulk, forming fresh EDW. In this research, we target the EDW formation extremes, namely 2004–2005, 2009–2010, and 2012–2013 for the strong years, and 2007–2008, 2008–2009, 2011–2012, and 2013–2014 for the weak years. Using modern observational datasets, we found that the remnant hurricanes and US east coast snowstorms have an impact on the extreme interannual formation rate of EDW. To have a strong EDW formation, it is sufficient to have several strong winter storms passing by the EDW formation region, where the ocean loses more heat to the atmosphere than average over the winter. These winter‐long sustained forcings have a cumulative effect on the ocean, and promote strong EDW formation. Conversely, when fewer winter storms pass, the ocean loses less heat to the atmosphere, promoting weak EDW formation. Meanwhile, the extra heat carried through from the previous years can also result in a weak EDW formation. Key Points: The wind‐driven Ekman transport is the indicator and the driving mechanism explaining the Eighteen Degree Water (EDW) extreme formation occurrencesA strong EDW formation proceeds from several strong late fall and winter storms: The hurricane remnants and US east coast stormsWeak atmospheric forcings engender a weak EDW formation in the ocean, which is inheritable through several consecutive years [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The upper branch of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) plays a critical role in ocean circulation and climate change, yet its variability during the last glacial period is poorly documented. Here, we investigate the northward‐flowing Glacial Eastern Boundary Current (GEBC) in the North Atlantic, known today as the European Slope Current, and representing the easternmost portion of the upper branch of the AMOC. Based on flow speed and isotopic records, we show that Dansgaard‐Oeschger (D‐O) interstadials (stadials) correspond to a faster (weaker) GEBC during the ∼50–15 ka period. This, by analogy to present‐day conditions, suggests enhanced (reduced) strength of the subpolar gyre and, by extension, of northern‐sourced water production and AMOC during D‐O interstadials (stadials). Concomitant fluctuations of both the GEBC and the European Ice Sheet between ∼30 and 17 ka suggest an active role of the upper branch of AMOC in the poleward transport of heat and freshwater to the northern North Atlantic, with direct impacts on deep water formation and AMOC strength. We explore these ice‐sheet—AMOC interactions and the associated abrupt climate changes over the last glacial period and the last deglaciation. Key Points: The strength of the upper branch of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is reflected in variations of the Glacial Eastern Boundary Current along the European marginSedimentological data show a Dansgaard‐Oeschger interstadial/faster‐stadial/slower flow patternFaster upper AMOC in the east basin corresponds with increased deep return flow in the west [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internal waves in the semidiurnal and near-inertial bands are investigated using an array of seven moorings located over the Reykjanes Ridge in a cross-ridge direction (57.6°–59.1°N, 28.5°–33.3°W). Continuous measurements of horizontal velocity and temperature for more than 2 years allow us to estimate the kinetic energy density and the energy fluxes of the waves. We found that there is a remarkable phase locking and linear relationship between the semidiurnal energy density and the tidal energy conversion at the spring–neap cycle. The energy-to-conversion ratio gives replenishment time scales of 4–5 days on the ridge top versus 7–9 days on the flanks. Altogether, these results demonstrate that the bulk of the tidal energy on the ridge comes from near-local sources, with a redistribution of energy from the top to the flanks, which is endorsed by the energy fluxes oriented in the cross-ridge direction. Implications for tidally driven energy dissipation are discussed. The time-averaged near-inertial kinetic energy is smaller than the semidiurnal kinetic energy by a factor of 2–3 but is much more variable in time. It features a strong seasonal cycle with a winter intensification and subseasonal peaks associated with local wind bursts. The ratio of energy to wind work gives replenishment time scales of 13–15 days, which is consistent with the short time scales of observed variability of near-inertial energy. In the upper ocean (1 km), the highest levels of near-inertial energy are preferentially found in anticyclonic structures, with a twofold increase relative to cyclonic structures, illustrating the funneling effect of anticyclones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After more than a decade of shallow convection, deep convection returned to the Irminger Sea in 2008 and occurred several times since then to reach exceptional convection depths (> 1500 m) in 2015 and 2016. Additionally, deep mixed layers deeper than 1600 m were also reported southeast of Cape Farewell in 2015. In this context, we used Argo data to show that deep convection occurred southeast of Cape Farewell (SECF) in 2016 and persisted during two additional years in 2017 and 2018 with a maximum convection depth deeper than 1300 m. In this article, we investigate the respective roles of air–sea buoyancy flux and preconditioning of the water column (ocean interior buoyancy content) to explain this 4-year persistence of deep convection SECF. We analyzed the respective contributions of the heat and freshwater components. Contrary to the very negative air–sea buoyancy flux that was observed during winter 2015, the buoyancy fluxes over the SECF region during the winters of 2016, 2017 and 2018 were close to the climatological average. We estimated the preconditioning of the water column as the buoyancy that needs to be removed (B) from the end-of-summer water column to homogenize it down to a given depth. B was lower for the winters of 2016–2018 than for the 2008–2015 winter mean, especially due to a vanishing stratification from 600 down to ∼1300 m. This means that less air–sea buoyancy loss was necessary to reach a given convection depth than in the mean, and once convection reached 600 m little additional buoyancy loss was needed to homogenize the water column down to 1300 m. We show that the decrease in B was due to the combined effects of the local cooling of the intermediate water (200–800 m) and the advection of a negative S anomaly in the 1200–1400 m layer. This favorable preconditioning permitted the very deep convection observed in 2016–2018 despite the atmospheric forcing being close to the climatological average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To improve our understanding of deep circulation, we deployed five Deep‐Argo floats (0–4,000 m) in the Charlie‐Gibbs Fracture Zone (CGFZ), which channels the flow of Iceland‐Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW), a dense water mass of the North Atlantic Ocean. The floats were programed to drift at 2,750 dbar in the ISOW layer. The floats mainly moved westward in the CGFZ, although some of them followed different routes for few cycles depending on northward intrusions of the North Atlantic Current over the CGFZ. One float revealed a direct route for ISOW from CGFZ to the Deep Western Boundary Current at Flemish Cap. In the CGFZ, oxygen data acquired by the floats revealed that the ISOW layer, characterized by salinity higher than 34.94 and density greater than 27.8 kg/m, was mainly composed of the highly oxygenated ISOW and the less oxygenated North East Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW), a complex water mass from the East Atlantic. In the ISOW layer, the relative contribution of ISOW was generally larger in the northern valley than in the southern valley of CGFZ. Northward intrusions of the North Atlantic Current above the CGFZ increased the relative contribution of NEADW in the northern valley and favors mixing between ISOW and NEADW. The ISOW‐NEADW signal flowing westward from the CGFZ toward the Deep Western Boundary Current was progressively diluted by Labrador Sea Water and Denmark Strait Overflow Water. Oxygen measurements from Deep‐Argo floats are essential for a better understanding and characterization of the mixing and spreading of deep water masses. Plain Language Summary: The North Atlantic Ocean contributes to the uptake in the deep ocean of the excess of heat received by Earth due to human activities. The heat redistribution toward the rest of the ocean depends on the deep circulation, which is still largely unknown. To improve our understanding of this deep circulation, we deployed in 2015 and 2017 five Deep‐Argo floats in the Charlie‐Gibbs Fracture Zone (CGFZ), a gap in the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge that constraints the pathway of deep water masses. Those autonomous platforms freely drifted at 2,750 dbar in the core of the Iceland‐Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW), a young water mass, rich in O2, originating from the Nordic Seas. One float revealed a new direct route of ISOW toward the subtropical gyre. The pathway followed by the floats west of the CGFZ depended on northward intrusions of the North Atlantic Current over the CGFZ. This interaction between the North Atlantic Current and the deep flow in the CGFZ favors the mixing of ISOW with the North East Atlantic Deep Water, an old water mass characterized by low O2. These results advocate for equipping Deep‐Argo floats with oxygen sensors to improve understanding of deep circulation and water mass mixing. Key Points: A direct route is suggested for ISOW from the Charlie‐Gibbs Fracture Zone to the Deep Western Boundary Current at Flemish CapAt the Charlie‐Gibbs Fracture Zone, oxygen measurements are key to quantifying ISOW mixing with North East Atlantic Deep WaterMixing between ISOW, North East Atlantic Deep Water, Labrador Sea Water, and Denmark Strait Overflow Water is observed in the western basin [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While Earth system models project a reduction, or even a shut-down, of deep convection in the North Atlantic Ocean in response to anthropogenic forcing, deep convection returned to the Irminger Sea in 2008 and occurred several times since then to reach exceptional depths > 1,500 m in 2015 and 2016. In this context, we used Argo data to show that deep convection persisted in the Irminger Sea during two additional years in 2017 and 2018 with maximum convection depth > 1,300 m. In this article, we investigate the respective roles of air-sea flux and preconditioning of the water column to explain this exceptional 4-year persistence of deep convection; we quantified them in terms of buoyancy and analyzed both the heat and freshwater components. Contrary to the very negative air-sea buoyancy flux that was observed during winter 2015, the buoyancy fluxes over the Irminger Sea during winters 2016, 2017 and 2018 were close to climatological average. We estimated the preconditioning of the water column as the buoyancy that needs to be removed (B) from the end of summer water column to homogenize the water column down to a given depth. B was lower for winters 2016-2018 than for the mean 2008-2015, including a vanishing stratification from 600 m down to ~1,300 m. It means that less air-sea buoyancy loss was necessary to reach a given convection depth than in the mean and once convection reached 600 m little additional buoyancy loss was needed to homogenize the water column down to 1,300 m. We showed that the decrease in B was due to the combined effects of a cooling of the intermediate water (200-800 m) and a decrease in salinity in the 1,200-1,400 m layer. This favorable preconditioning permitted the very deep convection observed in 2016-2018 despite the atmospheric forcing was close to the climatological average. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) impacts ocean and atmosphere temperatures on a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. Here we use observational datasets to validate model-based inferences on the usefulness of thermodynamics theory in reconstructing AMOC variability at low frequency, and further build on this reconstruction to provide prediction of the near-future (2019–2022) North Atlantic state. An easily observed surface quantity – the rate of warm to cold transformation of water masses at high latitudes – is found to lead the observed AMOC at 45 ∘ N by 5–6 years and to drive its 1993–2010 decline and its ongoing recovery, with suggestive prediction of extreme intensities for the early 2020s. We further demonstrate that AMOC variability drove a bi-decadal warming-to-cooling reversal in the subpolar North Atlantic before triggering a recent return to warming conditions that should prevail at least until 2021. Overall, this mechanistic approach of AMOC variability and its impact on ocean temperature brings new key aspects for understanding and predicting climatic conditions in the North Atlantic and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is produced in the surface and exported towards the deep ocean, adding ∼2 PgC/year to the global carbon export. Due to its central role in the Meridional Overturning Circulation, the eastern subpolar North Atlantic (eSPNA) contributes largely to this export. Here we quantify the transport and budget of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) in the eSPNA, in a box delimited by the OVIDE 2002 section and the Greenland‐Iceland‐Scotland sills. The Meridional Overturning Circulation exports >15.9 TgN/year of DON downward and, contrary to the extended view that these are materials of subtropical origin, up to 33% of the vertical flux derives from a net local DON production of 7.1 ± 2.6 TgN/year. The low C:N molar ratio of DOM production (7.4 ± 4.1) and the relatively short transit times in the eSPNA (3 ± 1 year) suggest that local biogeochemical transformations result in the injection of fresh bioavailable DOM to the deep ocean. Key Points: The eastern subpolar North Atlantic is a source of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON)Up to one third of the DON exported by the overturning circulation is produced locallyFull‐depth integrated net DON production roughly balances net nitrate uptake [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) impacts ocean and atmosphere temperatures on a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. Here we use observational data sets to validate model-based inferences on the usefulness of thermodynamics theory in reconstructing AMOC variability at low-frequency, and further build on this reconstruction to provide prediction of the near-future (2019–2022) North Atlantic state. An easily-observed surface quantity – the rate of warm to cold transformation of water masses at high latitudes – is found to lead the observed AMOC at 45° N by 5–6 years and to drive its 1993–2010 decline and its ongoing recovery, with suggestive prediction of extreme intensities for the early 2020's. We further demonstrate that AMOC variability drove a bi-decadal warming-to-cooling reversal in the subpolar North Atlantic before triggering a recent return to warming conditions that should prevail at least until 2021. Overall, this mechanistic approach of AMOC variability and its impact on ocean temperature brings new keys for understanding and predicting climatic conditions in the North Atlantic and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A global reference state of the subtropical mode water and permanent pycnocline properties for the 2000–2015 period is presented. The climatology is obtained from a pattern recognition algorithm applied to stratification profiles from the Argo global array. The stratification features are identified as permanent upper ocean pycnostad and pycnocline even when the seasonal pycnocline is developed. The climatology shows that both Northern Hemisphere subtropical gyres have a qualitatively very similar stratification structure. The permanent pycnoclines in the North Atlantic and North Pacific show two deep centers colocated with thick subtropical and subpolar mode waters. These centers coincide with modes in the density and stratification space. These deep pycnocline centers are separated by a region with a shallower and thinner permanent pycnocline that is located downstream of Western Boundary Current Extensions and upstream of Eastern Subtropical Fronts. This feature creates a remarkable double‐bowl pattern at the basin scale. In the subtropical gyres of the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans, the mode water and permanent pycnocline structures are characterized by two modes in the density and stratification space that, unlike in the Northern Hemisphere, do not necessarily correspond to deep and thick permanent pycnocline regions. In the subtropical gyre of the South Indian Ocean, a single mode is found to correspond to a single center in the western part of the gyre. This study also shows that away from these deep centers where the pycnocline depth almost follows isopycnals, the permanent pycnocline experiences significant thermohaline gradients that are not density compensated. Plain Language Summary: The vertical structure of the ocean is of great importance to understand the impact of climate changes on the global ocean because a larger density differences (i.e., increased stratification) between the upper and the deeper ocean can prevent anthropogenic excess of heat, and carbon, from reaching the abyssal ocean. Using data from autonomous Argo floats that sample the ocean properties (e.g., temperature and salinity) from the surface down to 2,000 m, we describe the vertical structure of the ocean's surface layers at midlatitudes, where heat is mostly stored in the upper 1,000 m. This new study shows for the first time (i) a strong dependence of the ocean properties of the surface layer with the ocean properties of the transition layer with the abyss and (ii) that this transition layer exhibits rapid changes in temperature and density when rising to the surface as well as in the center of the each oceans. These new results are a significant refinement to the classic depiction of the midlatitude ocean as a simple bowl of warm water separated from the abyss by a layer of constant density and thus provide an accurate benchmark for climate models to detect long‐term changes in the ocean vertical structure. Key Points: In each subtropical basin, the stratification pattern of a mode water pycnostad overlying a permanent pycnocline exists continuously throughout the gyreThe pycnocline has a double‐bowl pattern with two deep centers colocated with thick mode waters and shallower in the center of the gyreThe North Atlantic subtropical permanent pycnocline and mode waters are much deeper, thicker, and less stratified than those in other gyres [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Reykjanes Ridge is a major topographic feature located south of Iceland in the North Atlantic Ocean that strongly influences the subpolar gyre circulation. Based on velocity and hydrographic measurements carried out along the crest of the Reykjanes Ridge from the Icelandic continental shelf to 50°N during the RREX cruise in June–July 2015, we derived the first direct estimates of volume and water mass transports over the Reykjanes Ridge. North of 53.15°N, circulation was mainly westward; south of this latitude it was mainly eastward. The westward transport was estimated at 21.9 ± 2.5 Sv (Sv = 106 m3 s−1) and represents the subpolar gyre intensity. The westward flows followed two main pathways at 57°N near the Bight Fracture Zone and at 59–62°N. We argue that those pathways were connected to the northern branch of the North Atlantic Current and to the Sub‐Arctic Front, respectively, which were both intersected by the southern part of the section. In addition to this horizontal circulation, mixing and bathymetry shaped the water mass distribution. Water mass transformations in the Iceland Basin lead to the formation of weakly stratified Subpolar Mode Water. We explain why Subpolar Mode Water, the main water mass contributing to the westward flow, was denser at 57°N than at 59–62°N. At higher densities, both Intermediate Water and Icelandic Slope Water contributed more to the westward transport across the Reykjanes Ridge than the sum of Labrador Sea Water and Iceland‐Scotland Overflow Water. Plain Language Summary: The Reykjanes Ridge, the northern section of the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge, strongly influences the cyclonic circulation of the North Atlantic subpolar gyre, a major component of the climate system. Up to now, no dedicated data set was available to describe the circulation across this ridge. To fill this gap, surface‐to‐bottom measurements of flow velocity and water mass properties were carried out along the crest of the ridge, from Iceland to 50°N, in 2015. North of 53.15°N, the flow was mainly westward. It defines the westward branch of the subpolar gyre, and our study provides the first direct estimate of its intensity. The westward flow followed two main pathways related to specific bathymetry features: at the Bight Fracture Zone (57°N), which is a deep opening in the ridge, and at 59–62°N where the bathymetry rapidly deepens southward. The horizontal circulation of the Iceland Basin connects these pathways to the North Atlantic Current flowing eastward south of 53.15°N. Knowledge of the westward cross‐ridge flows is a prerequisite for understanding the northward evolution of the Irminger Current, a major conduit for the subtropical waters toward the deep convection regions in the Irminger and Labrador Seas. Key Points: The subpolar gyre (SPG) intensity was estimated at 21.9 ± 2.5 Sv in summer 2015The westward limb of the SPG was intensified at the Bight Fracture Zone (57°N) and at 59–62°NHorizontal circulation, mixing, and bathymetry shaped the water mass distribution over the Reykjanes Ridge [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North Atlantic Ocean is a major sink region for atmospheric CO2 and contributes to the storage of anthropogenic carbon (Cant). While there is general agreement that the intensity of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) modulates uptake, transport and storage of Cant in the North Atlantic Subpolar Ocean, processes controlling their recent variability and evolution over the 21st century remain uncertain. This study investigates the relationship between transport, air-sea flux and storage rate of Cant in the North Atlantic Subpolar Ocean over the past 53 years. Its relies on the combined analysis of a multiannual in situ data set and outputs from a global biogeochemical ocean general circulation model (NEMO-PISCES) at 1=2° spatial resolution forced by an atmospheric reanalysis. Despite an underestimation of Cant transport and an overestimation of anthropogenic air-sea CO2 flux in the model, the interannual variability of the regional Cant storage rate and its driving processes were well simulated by the model. Analysis of the multi-decadal simulation revealed that the MOC intensity variability was the major driver of the Cant transport variability at 25 and 36° N, but not at OVIDE. At the subpolar OVIDE section, the interannual variability of Cant transport was controlled by the accumulation of Cant in the MOC upper limb. At multi-decadal timescales, long-term changes in the North Atlantic storage rate of Cant were driven by the increase in air-sea fluxes of anthropogenic CO2. North Atlantic Central Water played a key role for storing Cant in the upper layer of the subtropical region and for supplying Cant to Intermediate Water and North Atlantic Deep Water. The transfer of Cant from surface to deep waters occurred mainly north of the OVIDE section. Most of the Cant transferred to the deep ocean was stored in the subpolar region, while the remainder was exported to the subtropical gyre within the lower MOC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the Industrial Revolution, the North Atlantic Ocean has been accumulating anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) and experiencing ocean acidification, that is, an increase in the concentration of hydrogen ions (a reduction in pH) and a reduction in the concentration of carbonate ions. The latter causes the 'aragonite saturation horizon'-below which waters are undersaturated with respect to a particular calcium carbonate, aragonite-to move to shallower depths (to shoal), exposing corals to corrosive waters. Here we use a database analysis to show that the present rate of supply of acidified waters to the deep Atlantic could cause the aragonite saturation horizon to shoal by 1,000-1,700 metres in the subpolar North Atlantic within the next three decades. We find that, during 1991-2016, a decrease in the concentration of carbonate ions in the Irminger Sea caused the aragonite saturation horizon to shoal by about 10-15 metres per year, and the volume of aragonite-saturated waters to reduce concomitantly. Our determination of the transport of the excess of carbonate over aragonite saturation (xc[CO32−])-an indicator of the availability of aragonite to organisms-by the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation shows that the present-day transport of carbonate ions towards the deep ocean is about 44 per cent lower than it was in preindustrial times. We infer that a doubling of atmospheric anthropogenic CO2 levels-which could occur within three decades according to a 'business-as-usual scenario' for climate change-could reduce the transport of xc[CO32−] by 64-79 per cent of that in preindustrial times, which could severely endanger cold-water coral habitats. The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation would also export this acidified deep water southwards, spreading corrosive waters to the world ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The GEOVIDE cruise was carried out in the subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA) along the OVIDE section and across the Labrador Sea in May-June 2014. It was planned to clarify the distribution of the trace elements and their isotopes in the SPNA as part of the GEOTRACES international program. This paper focuses on the state of the circulation and distribution of thermohaline properties during the cruise. In terms of circulation, the comparison with the 2002-2012 mean state shows a more intense Irminger Current and also a weaker North Atlantic Current, with a transfer of volume transport from its northern to its central branch. However, those anomalies are compatible with the variability already observed along the OVIDE section in the 2000s. In terms of properties, the surface waters of the eastern SPNA were much colder and fresher than the averages over 2002-2012. In spite of negative temperature anomalies in the surface waters, the heat transport across the OVIDE section estimated at 0.56±0.06PW was the largest measured since 2002. This relatively large value is related to the relatively strong Meridional Overturning Circulation measured across the OVIDE section during GEOVIDE (18.7±3.0 Sv). By analyzing the air-sea heat and freshwater fluxes over the eastern SPNA in relation to the heat and freshwater content changes observed during 2013 and 2014, we concluded that on a short timescale these changes were mainly driven by air-sea heat and freshwater fluxes rather than by ocean circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The GEOVIDE cruise was carried out in the subpolar North Atlantic (SPNA), along the OVIDE section and across the Labrador Sea, in May-June 2014. It was planned to clarify the distribution of the trace elements and their isotopes in the SPNA as part of the GEOTRACES international program. This paper focuses on the state of the circulation and distribution of thermohaline properties during the cruise. In terms of circulation, the comparison with the 2002-2012 mean state shows a more intense Irminger current and also a weaker North Atlantic Current, with a transfer of volume transport from its northern to its central branch. However, those anomalies are compatible with the variability already observed along the OVIDE section in the 2000s. In terms of properties, the surface waters of the eastern SPNA were much colder and fresher than the averages over 2002-2012. Remarkably, in spite of negative temperature anomalies in the surface waters, the heat transport across the OVIDE section, estimated at 0.56 ± 0.06 PW, was the largest measured since 2002. This relatively large value is related to the relatively strong Meridional Overturning Circulation measured across the OVIDE section during GEOVIDE (18.7 ± 3.0 Sv). Analyzing the air-sea heat and freshwater fluxes over the eastern SPNA in relation to the heat and freshwater content changes observed during 2013 and 2014, we concluded that these changes were mainly driven by air-sea heat and freshwater fluxes rather than by ocean circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North Atlantic Ocean is a major sink region for anthropogenic carbon (Cant) and a major contributor to its storage. While it is in general agreed that the intensity of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) modulates uptake, transport and storage of Cant in the North Atlantic Subpolar Ocean, processes controlling their recent variability and 21st century evolution remain uncertain. This study aims to investigate the relationship between the transport of Cant across the Greenland-Portugal OVIDE section and the storage of Cant in the North Atlantic Subpolar Ocean over the past 44 years. Its relies on the combined analysis of a multi-annual data set (OVIDE program) and output from a global biogeochemical ocean general circulation model (NEMO/PISCES) at 1/2° spatial resolution forced by the atmospheric reanalysis Drakkar Forcing Set 4. The skill of the model to reproduce observed physical and biogeochemical characteristics, as well as their year-to-year variability is assessed over the period covered by observations. While the analysis of the 44 year long hindcast simulation reveals that the interannual variability of the storage rate of Cant is controlled by the northward transport during low NAO phases, as opposed to the air-sea flux during strong NAO phases, the progressive and continuous increase of the subpolar North Atlantic Cant inventory over the period 1958-2012 is driven by the regional uptake of Cant from the atmosphere. Our results suggest thus an increase of the Cant inventory in this region over the 21 st century assuming unabated emissions of CO2 and MOC fluctuation within observed boundaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The variability of the turbulent kinetic energy dissipation due to internal waves is quantified using a finescale parameterization applied to the A25 Greenland-Portugal transect repeated every two years from 2002 to 2012. The internal wave velocity shear and strain are estimated for each cruise at 91 stations from full depth vertical profiles of density and velocity. The 2002-12 averaged dissipation rate 〈 ε2002-2012〉 in the upper ocean lays in the range 1-10 × 10−10 W kg−1. At depth, 〈 ε2002-2012〉 is smaller than 1 × 10−10 W kg−1 except over rough topography found at the continental slopes, the Reykjanes Ridge, and in a region delimited by the Azores-Biscay Rise and Eriador Seamount. There, the vertical energy flux of internal waves is preferentially oriented toward the surface and 〈 ε2002-2012〉 is in the range 1-20 × 10−10 W kg−1. The interannual variability in the dissipation rates is remarkably small over the whole transect. A few strong dissipation rate events exceeding the uncertainty of the finescale parameterization occur at depth between the Azores-Biscay Rise and Eriador Seamount. This region is also marked by mesoscale eddying flows resulting in enhanced surface energy level and enhanced bottom velocities. Estimates of the vertical energy fluxes into the internal tide and into topographic internal waves suggest that the latter are responsible for the strong dissipation events. At Eriador Seamount, both topographic internal waves and the internal tide contribute with the same order of magnitude to the dissipation rate while around the Reykjanes Ridge the internal tide provides the bulk of the dissipation rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repeated hydrographic sections provide critically needed data on and understanding of changes in basin-wide ocean CO2 chemistry over multi-decadal timescales. Here, high-quality measurements collected at twelve cruises carried out along the same track between 1991 and 2015 have been used to determine long-term changes in ocean CO2 chemistry and ocean acidification in the Irminger and Iceland basins of the North Atlantic Ocean. Trends were determined for each of the main water masses present and are discussed in the context of the basin-wide circulation. The pH has decreased in all water masses of the Irminger and Iceland basins over the past 25 years with the greatest changes in surface and intermediate waters (between 0.0010 0.0001 and 0.0018 0.0001 pH units yr-1). In order to disentangle the drivers of the pH changes, we decomposed the trends into their principal drivers: changes in temperature, salinity, total alkalinity (AT) and total dissolved inorganic carbon (both its natural and anthropogenic components). The increase in anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) was identified as the main agent of the pH decline, partially offset by AT increases. The acidification of intermediate waters caused by Cant uptake has been reinforced by the aging of the water masses over the period of our analysis. The pH decrease of the deep overflow waters in the Irminger basin was similar to that observed in the upper ocean and was mainly linked to the Cant increase, thus reflecting the recent contact of these deep waters with the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new objective algorithm for the characterization of the permanent pycnocline (OAC-P) in subtropical gyres is proposed. OAC-P is based on a pragmatic analysis of vertical density gradient features to identify the permanent pycnocline: OAC-P identifies the permanent pycnocline as the stratified layer found below surface mode waters. OAC-P provides the permanent pycnocline depth, unequivocally associated with a local maximum in the stratification, and top and bottom thicknesses, associated with upward and downward decreases in stratification, respectively. OAC-P uses half Gaussian curves as asymmetric nonlinear analytical models of the stratification peak. It is the first time that an algorithm is proposed to characterize objectively the permanent pycnocline for a region where handling the stronger stratification peak of the seasonal pycnocline is complex. A guideline for how to implement the OAC-P is given, with application to the North Atlantic Ocean Argo data as an example. OAC-P provides a detailed description of the mean structure of the North Atlantic subtropical permanent pycnocline. OAC-P detects a permanent pycnocline throughout the subtropical gyre north of the North Equatorial Current. The large-scale description of the permanent pycnocline depth structure as a classic bowl shape is captured however with much more detail. New regional information is provided. In particular, (i) there is only one region-the southern recirculation gyre of the Gulf Stream extension-where the permanent pycnocline is along an isopycnal surface and (ii) vertical asymmetries clearly discriminate one region from another. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Repeated hydrographic sections provide critically needed data on, and understanding of, changes in basin-wide ocean CO2 chemistry over multi-decadal timescales. Here, high-quality measurements collected at thirteen cruises carried out along the same track between 1981 and 2015, have been used to determine long-term changes in ocean CO2 chemistry and ocean acidification in the Irminger and Iceland basins of the North Atlantic Ocean. Trends were determined for each of the main water masses present and are discussed in the context of the basin-wide circulation. The pH has decreased in all water masses of the Irminger and Iceland basins over the past 34 years, with the greatest changes in surface and intermediate waters (between -0.0008 ± 0.0001 pH units yr-1 and -0.0013 ± 0.0001 pH units yr-1). In order to disentangle the drivers of the pH changes, we decomposed the trends into their principal drivers: changes in temperature, salinity, total alkalinity (AT) and total dissolved inorganic carbon (both its natural and anthropogenic components). The increase of anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) was identified as the main agent of the pH decline, partially offset by AT increases. The acidification of intermediate waters caused by Cant uptake has been reinforced by the aging of the water masses over the period of our analysis. The pH decrease of the deep overflow waters of the Irminger basin was similar to that observed in the upper ocean, and was mainly linked to the Cant increase, thus reflecting the recent contact of these deep waters with the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 96 finestructure and 30 microstructure full-depth vertical profiles were collected along the A25 Greenland-Portugal Observatoire de la Variabilité Interannuelle et Décennale en Atlantique Nord (OVIDE) hydrographic line in 2008. The microstructure of the horizontal velocity was used to calculate turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates εvmp, where vmp refers to the vertical microstructure profiler. The lowest dissipation values ( εvmp < 0.5 × 10−10 W kg−1) are found below 2000 m in the Iberian Abyssal Plain and in the center of the Irminger basin; the largest values (>5 × 10−10 W kg−1) are found in the main thermocline, around the Reykjanes Ridge, and in a 1000-m-thick layer above the bottom near 48°N. The finestructure of density was used to estimate isopycnal strain and that of the lowered acoustic Doppler current profiler to estimate the vertical shear of horizontal velocities. Strain and shear were used to estimate dissipation rates εG03 (Gregg et al.) associated with the internal wave field. The shear-to-strain ratio correction term of the finescale parameterization εG03 brings the fine- and microscale estimates of the dissipation rate into better agreement as Polzin et al. found. The latitude/buoyancy frequency term slightly improves the parameterization for weakly stratified waters. Correction term εG03 is consistent with εvmp within a factor of 4.5 over 95% of the profiles. This good consistency suggests that most of the turbulent activity recorded in this dataset is due to the internal wave field. The canonical globally averaged diffusivity value of order 10−4 m2 s−1 needed to maintain the global abyssal stratification (Munk) is only reached on the flank of the Reykjanes Ridge and in the region around 48°N. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrographic data collected in the Irminger Sea in the 1990s-2000s indicate that dense shelf waters carried by the East Greenland Current south of the Denmark Strait intermittently descend (cascade) down the continental slope and merge with the deep waters originating from the Nordic Seas overflows. Repeat measurements on the East Greenland shelf at ~200 km south of the Denmark Strait (65°-66°N) reveal that East Greenland shelf waters in the Irminger Sea are occasionally as dense ( σ0 > 27.80) as the overflow-derived deep waters carried by the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC). Clear hydrographic traces of upstream cascading of dense shelf waters are found over the continental slope at 64.3°N, where the densest plumes ( σ0 > 27.80) originating from the shelf are identified as distinct low-salinity anomalies in the DWBC. Downstream observations suggest that dense fresh waters descending from the shelf in the northern Irminger Sea can be distinguished in the DWBC up to the latitude of Cape Farewell (~60°N) and that these waters make a significant contribution to the DWBC transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent decadal salinity changes in the Greenland-Scotland overflow-derived deep waters are quantified using CTD data from repeated hydrographic sections in the Irminger Sea. The Denmark Strait Overflow Water salinity record shows the absence of any net change over the 1980s–2000s; changes in the Iceland–Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) and in the deep water column (σ0 > 27.82), enclosing both overflows, show a distinct freshening reversal in the early 2000s. The observed freshening reversal is a lagged consequence of the persistent ISOW salinification that occurred upstream, in the Iceland Basin, after 1996 in response to salinification of the northeast Atlantic waters entrained into the overflow. The entrainment salinity increase is explained by the earlier documented North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)-induced contraction of the subpolar gyre and corresponding northwestward advance of subtropical waters that followed the NAO decline in the mid-1990s and continued through the mid-2000s. Remarkably, the ISOW freshening reversal is not associated with changes in the overflow water salinity. This suggests that changes in the NAO-dependent relative contributions of subpolar and subtropical waters to the entrainment south of the Iceland–Scotland Ridge may dominate over changes in the Nordic Seas freshwater balance with respect to their effect on the ISOW salinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-frequency current fluctuations in the deep central equatorial Atlantic are analyzed using current meter measurements recorded from November 1992 to November 1994. Current meters were located at about 14°W of longitude and 1° of latitude on both sides of the equator between 1,700 m depth and the ocean bottom. At all sampling depths, the velocity fluctuations are dominantly zonal and symmetrical with respect to the equator. At 1,700 and 2,000 m, the flow is dominated by annual period fluctuations, at 3,000 m, the velocity field amplitude presents a minimum, and at 3,750 and 3,950 m, the flow is modulated by annual and semiannual period variability. The annual signal exhibits an apparent upward phase propagation. When considering the phase and the amplitude of the seasonal fluctuations, the data compare well with the outputs of a realistic numerical simulation of the Atlantic Ocean. Together with a previous analysis of the model simulations, this supports the idea that the observed annual fluctuations are due to wind-forced vertically propagating Kelvin and Rossby waves. Data and model do not provide deciding evidences of the presence of semiannual equatorial waves deeper than 3,500 m depth in the central equatorial Atlantic Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An eddy-resolving primitive equation general circulation model is used to estimate water-mass subduction rates in the North Atlantic Ocean subtropical gyre. The diagnostics are based on the instantaneous kinematic approach, which allows the calculation of the annual rate of water-mass subduction at a given density range, following isopycnal outcrop positions over the annual cycle. It is shown that water-mass subduction is effected rapidly (∼1–2 months) as the mixed layer depth decreases in spring, consistent with Stommel’s hypothesis, and occurs mostly over the area of deep late-winter mixed layers (≥150 m) across the central North Atlantic in the density range 26 ≤ σ ≤ 27.2. Annual subduction rates O(100–200 m yr–1) are found south and east of the Gulf Stream extension in the density range of subtropical mode waters from roughly 26.2 to 26.6. In the northeastern part of the subtropical gyre, annual subduction rates are somewhat larger, O(250 m yr–1), from a density of about 26.9 east of the North Atlantic Current to 27.4 (upper cutoff in this study). The overall basin-integrated subduction rate for subtropical mode waters (26.2 ≤ σ ≤ 26.6) is about 12.2 Sv (Sv ≡ 106 m3 s-1), comparable to the total formation rate inferred from the surface density forcing applied in the model of roughly 11 Sv in this density range. In contrast, basin-integrated rates for denser central water (26.8 ≤ σ ≤ 27.2) provide a vanishingly small net subduction. In this range, eddy correlations (<30 days) between the surface outcrop area and the local subduction rate counteract the net subduction by the mean flow (deduced from monthly averaged model fields). Comparison with estimates of the annual subduction rate based on the annual mean velocity and late-winter mixed layer properties alone, as is usual in climatological and coarse-resolution model analyses, indicates a mismatch of at least 8 Sv in the density range where the model forms subtropical mode water. This mismatch is primarily due to time-varying mixed layer processes rather than small-scale mixing not resolved explicitly by the model. Our diagnostics based on the instantaneous kinematic approach provide a more complete picture of the water-mass formation process than diagnostics based only on air–sea flux or late-winter mixed layer model data. They reveal the crucial importance of both the seasonal mixed layer cycle and mesoscale eddies to the overall formation rate and provide thus a valuable tool for the analysis of water-mass formation rates in eddy-resolving numerical simulations at basin scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]