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The article discusses the emerging field of sensory nutrition, which explores the interactions between nutrition and sensory sciences. The article highlights the importance of communication and collaboration between researchers and clinicians in these areas to advance knowledge and challenge unsubstantiated claims. It provides examples of how improved communication could have resolved longstanding questions about taste mechanisms and the effects of food processing on health. The article also emphasizes the need for a multidimensional approach to studying sensory function and its impact on food intake. Overall, the article suggests that increased research at the sensory-nutrition interface holds promise for better understanding and practical applications in clinical and public health settings. [Extracted from the article]

Background A person's daily nutrient intake and overall nutritional status are determined by a complex interplay of the types and amounts of foods ingested in combination with the timing and frequency of eating. Objectives The aim was to summarize frequency of eating occasion data examined by the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, the macronutrient contributions they provide, and meal frequency relative to dietary quality among the US population (≥2 y), with a focus on sex, age, race/Hispanic origin, and income. Methods Demographic and 24-h recall data from the 2013–2016 NHANES were examined. An eating occasion was defined as "any ingestive event (e.g. solid food, beverage, water) that is either energy yielding or non-energy yielding"; all eating occasions were further divided into discrete meals and snacks. Frequency of meals and snacks was defined as "the number of daily EOs [eating occasions]," respectively. Diet quality was assessed via the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)–2015. Results Most Americans consume 2 (28%) to 3 (64%) meals on a given day and >90% consume 2 to 3 snacks on that day. Adult, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black and lower-income (<131% family poverty-to-income ratio) Americans had a lower frequency of eating than children or adolescents, non-Hispanic White, and non-Hispanic Asian Americans and higher-income Americans, respectively. Americans who reported 3 meals on a given day consumed a diet higher in dietary quality than Americans who consumed 2 meals on a given day (HEI-2015: 61.0 vs. 55.0), regardless of population subgroup. Conclusions The frequency of the types of eating occasions differs according to age, race and Hispanic origin, and income. Dietary quality is associated with the number of meals consumed. Healthy dietary patterns can be constructed in a variety of ways to suit different life stages, cultural practices, and income levels; improved diet quality and careful consideration of nutrient density when planning meals are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine if the mixed evidence of almond consumption on HbA1c stems from testing people with different body fat distributions (BFD) associated with different risks of glucose intolerance. A 6-month randomised controlled trial in 134 adults was conducted. Participants were randomly assigned to the almond (A) or control (C) group based on their BFD. Those in the almond group consumed 1·5 oz of almonds with their breakfast and as their afternoon snack daily. Those in the control group continued their habitual breakfast and afternoon snack routines. Body weight and composition were measured and blood samples were collected for determination of HbA1c, glycaemia and lipaemia at 0 and 6 months. Appetite ratings, energy intake and diet quality were collected at 0, 2, 4 and 6 months. Participants consuming almonds ingested 816 (sem 364) kJ/d more than participants in the control group (P = 0·03), but this did not result in any differences in body weight (A: –0·3 (sem 0·4), C: –0·4 (sem 0·4); P > 0·3). Participants in the almond, high android subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) group had a greater reduction in android fat mass percentage (A: –1·0 (sem 0·6), C: 1·1 (sem 0·6); P = 0·04), preserved android lean mass percentage (A: 0·9 (sem 0·6), C: –1 (sem 0·6); P = 0·04) and tended to decrease android visceral adipose tissue mass (A: –13 (sem 53) g, C: 127 (sem 53) g; P = 0·08) compared with those in the control, high SAT group. There were no differences in HbA1c between groups (A: 5·4 (sem 0·04), C: 5·5 (sem 0·04); P > 0·05). Thus, BFD may not explain the mixed evidence on almond consumption and HbA1c. Long-term almond consumption has limited ability to improve cardiometabolic health in those who are overweight and obese but otherwise healthy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) are effective taste stimuli. The quality they impart has not been well characterized. Sourness, and "fattiness" have been reported, but an irritation component has also been described and how these transition with gradations of aliphatic chain length has not been systematically studied. This study examined intensity and quality ratings of NEFA ranging from C2 to C18. Oral sites and the time course of sensations were also monitored. Given all NEFA contain carboxylic acid moieties capable of donating hydrogen ions, the primary stimulus for sour taste, testing was conducted with and without sour adaptation to explore the contribution of sour taste across the range of NEFA. Short-chain NEFA (C2–C6) were rated as predominantly sour, and this was diminished in C2 and C4 by sour adaptation. Medium-chain NEFA (C8–C12) were rated as mainly irritating with long-chain NEFA (C18) described mostly as bitter. The latter may reflect the lack of "fatty" lexicon to describe the sensation. Short-chain NEFA were mostly localized to the anterior tongue and were of rapid onset. The sensation from medium-chain NEFA was attributed to the lateral tongue, whereas medium- and long-chain NEFA sensations were predominantly localized to the back of the tongue and throat and had a longer lag time. The findings indicate there is a systematic transition of NEFA taste quality and irritation with increments in chain length and this is consistent with multiple modes of transduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snacks, while widely consumed in the United States (U.S.), do not have a standard definition, complicating research to understand associations, if any, with weight status. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the association between snacking frequency and weight status using various snacking definitions that exist in the scientific literature among U.S. adults (NHANES 2013–2016; ≥20y n = 9,711). Four event-based snacking definitions were operationalized including participant-defined snacks, eating events outside of meals, and operationally defined snacks based on absolute thresholds of energy consumed (>50 kcal). Weight status was examined using body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and sagittal abdominal diameter risk. Logistic regression models examined snacking frequency and associations with weight status. Outcomes varied by the definition of a snack employed, but the majority of findings were null. Mean energy from snacks was significantly higher among women with obesity compared to women with normal weight when a snack was defined as any event outside of a typical mealtime (i.e. other than breakfast, lunch, dinner, super, brunch), regardless of whether or not it contributed ≥50 kcal. Further investigation into ingestive behaviors that may influence the relationship between snacking frequency and weight status is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Low-calorie sweeteners (LCSs) provide sweetness with little or no energy. However, each LCS's unique chemical structure has potential to elicit different sensory, physiological, and behavioral responses that affect body weight. Objective The purpose of this trial was to compare the effects of consumption of 4 LCSs and sucrose on body weight, ingestive behaviors, and glucose tolerance over a 12-wk intervention in adults (18–60 y old) with overweight or obesity (body mass index 25–40 kg/m2). Methods In a parallel-arm design, 154 participants were randomly assigned to consume 1.25–1.75 L of beverage sweetened with sucrose (n  = 39), aspartame (n  = 30), saccharin (n  = 29), sucralose (n  = 28), or rebaudioside A (rebA) (n  = 28) daily for 12 wk. The beverages contained 400–560 kcal/d (sucrose treatments) or <5 kcal/d (LCS treatments). Anthropometric indexes, energy intake, energy expenditure, appetite, and glucose tolerance were measured at baseline. Body weight was measured every 2 wk with energy intake, expenditure, and appetite assessed every 4 wk. Twenty-four-hour urine collections were completed every 4 wk to determine study compliance via para-aminobenzoic acid excretion. Results Of the participants enrolled in the trial, 123 completed the 12-wk intervention. Sucrose and saccharin consumption led to increased body weight across the 12-wk intervention (Δweight = +1.85 ± 0.36 kg and +1.18 ± 0.36 kg, respectively; P  ≤ 0.02) and did not differ from each other. There was no significant change in body weight with consumption of the other LCS treatments compared with baseline, but change in body weight for sucralose was negative and significantly lower compared with all other LCSs at week 12 (weight difference ≥ 1.37 ± 0.52 kg, P  ≤ 0.008). Energy intake decreased with sucralose consumption (P  = 0.02) and ingestive frequency was lower for sucralose than for saccharin (P  = 0.045). Glucose tolerance was not significantly affected by any of the sweetener treatments. Conclusions Sucrose and saccharin consumption significantly increase body weight compared with aspartame, rebA, and sucralose, whereas weight change was directionally negative and lower for sucralose compared with saccharin, aspartame, and rebA consumption. LCSs should be categorized as distinct entities because of their differing effects on body weight. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02928653. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Low-calorie sweeteners are often used to moderate energy intake and postprandial glycemia, but some evidence indicates that they may exacerbate these aims.Objective: The trial's primary aim was to assess the effect of daily aspartame ingestion for 12 wk on glycemia. Effects on appetite and body weight were secondary aims.Methods: One hundred lean [body mass index (kg/m2): 18-25] adults aged 18-60 y were randomly assigned to consume 0, 350, or 1050 mg aspartame/d (ASP groups) in a beverage for 12 wk in a parallel-arm design. At baseline, body weight and composition were determined, a 240-min oral-glucose-tolerance test (OGTT) was administered, and measurements were made of appetite and selected hormones. Participants also collected a 24-h urine sample. During the intervention, the 0-mg/d ASP group consumed capsules containing 680 mg dextrose and 80 mg para-amino benzoic acid. For the 350-mg/d ASP group, the beverage contained 350 mg aspartame and the 1050-mg/d ASP group consumed the same beverage plus capsules containing 680 mg dextrose and 700 mg aspartame. Body weight, blood pressure, heart rate, and waist circumference were measured weekly. At weeks 4, 8, and 12, participants collected 24-h urine samples and kept appetite logs. Baseline measurements were repeated at week 12.Results: With the exception of the baseline OGTT glucose concentration at 60 min (and resulting area under the curve value), there were no group differences for glucose, insulin, resting leptin, glucagon-like peptide 1, or gastric inhibitory peptide at baseline or week 12. There also were no effects of aspartame ingestion on appetite, body weight, or body composition. Compliance with the beverage intervention was ∼95%.Conclusions: Aspartame ingested at 2 doses for 12 wk had no effect on glycemia, appetite, or body weight among healthy, lean adults. These data do not support the view that aspartame is problematic for the management of glycemia, appetite, or body weight. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02999321. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary fats serve multiple essential roles in human health but may also contribute to acute and chronic health complications. Thus, understanding mechanisms that influence fat ingestion are critical. All sensory systems may contribute relevant cues to fat detection, with the most recent evidence supporting a role for the sense of taste. Taste detection thresholds for fat vary markedly between individuals and responses are not normally distributed. Genetics may contribute to these observations. Using crowdsourced data obtained from families visiting the Denver Museum of Nature & Science, our objective was to estimate the heritability of fat taste (oleogustus). A pedigree analysis was conducted with 106 families (643 individuals) who rated the fat taste intensity of graded concentrations of linoleic acid (LA) embedded in taste strips. The findings estimate that 19% (P = 0.043) of the variability of taste response to LA relative to baseline is heritable at the highest concentration tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nuts have high energy and fat contents, but nut intake does not promote weight gain or obesity, which may be partially explained by their proposed high satiety value. The primary aim of this study was to assess the effects of consuming almonds versus a baked food on postprandial appetite and neural responses to visual food stimuli. Twenty-two adults (19 women and 3 men) with a BMI between 25 and 40 kg/m² completed the current study during a 12-week behavioral weight loss intervention. Participants consumed either 28 g of whole, lightly salted roasted almonds or a serving of a baked food with equivalent energy and macronutrient contents in random order on two testing days prior to and at the end of the intervention. Pre- and postprandial appetite ratings and functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were completed on all four testing days. Postprandial hunger, desire to eat, fullness, and neural responses to visual food stimuli were not different following consumption of almonds and the baked food, nor were they influenced by weight loss. These results support energy and macronutrient contents as principal determinants of postprandial appetite and do not support a unique satiety effect of almonds independent of these variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The post-lunch dip in cognition is a well-established phenomenon of decreased alertness, memory and vigilance after lunch consumption. Lunch composition reportedly influences the post-lunch dip. Moreover, dieting is associated with cognitive function impairments. The negative effects of dieting have been reversed with nut-supplemented diets. The aims of this study were to (1) evaluate the acute effect of an almond-enriched high-fat lunch or high-carbohydrate lunch on the post-lunch decline in cognitive function, and (2) evaluate the effects of chronic almond consumption as part of an energy-restricted diet on the memory and attention domains of cognitive function. In total, eighty-six overweight and obese adults were randomised to consume either an almond-enriched diet (AED) or a nut-free control diet (NFD) over a 12-week weight loss intervention. Participants were also randomised to receive either an almond-enriched high-fat lunch (A-HFL) (>55 % energy from fat, almonds contributing 70–75 % energy) or a high-carbohydrate lunch (HCL) (>85 % energy from carbohydrates) at the beginning and end of the weight loss intervention. Memory and attention performance indices decreased after lunch consumption (P<0·001). The A-HFL group ameliorated the decline in memory scores by 57·7 % compared with the HCL group (P=0·004). Both lunch groups had similar declines in attention. Moreover, memory and attention performance indices increased after the 12-week intervention period (P<0·05) with no difference between the AED and NFD groups. In conclusion, almond consumption at a midday meal can reduce the post-lunch dip in memory. However, long-term almond consumption may not further improve cognitive function outcomes in a weight loss intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the increasing evidence that supports the ability of humans to taste non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), recent studies have sought to determine if relationships exist between oral sensitivity to NEFA (measured as thresholds), food intake and obesity. Published findings suggest there is either no association or an inverse association. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine if differences in fatty acid taste sensitivity or intensity ratings exist between individuals who are lean or obese. A total of 7 studies that reported measurement of taste sensations to non-esterified fatty acids by psychophysical methods (e.g.,studies using model systems rather than foods, detection thresholds as measured by a 3-alternative forced choice ascending methodology were included in the meta-analysis. Two other studies that measured intensity ratings to graded suprathreshold NEFA concentrations were evaluated qualitatively. No significant differences in fatty acid taste thresholds or intensity were observed. Thus, differences in fatty acid taste sensitivity do not appear to precede or result from obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The inclusion of almonds in an energy-restricted diet has been reported both to enhance or to have no effect on weight loss. Their effects specifically on visceral body fat stores during energy restriction have not been widely examined. In addition, almond consumption has been associated with reduced blood pressure (BP), but whether this is linked to or independent of changes in body composition has to our knowledge not been examined.Objective: We evaluated the effects of consuming almonds as part of an energy-restricted diet on body composition, specifically visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and BP, compared to a nut-free energy-restricted diet.Methods: A randomized controlled 12-wk clinical trial of 86 healthy adults [body mass index (in kg/m2): 25-40] was conducted. Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 energy-restricted (500-kcal deficit/d) diets: an almond-enriched diet (AED) (15% energy from almonds) or a nut-free diet (NFD). A linear mixed-model analysis on primary outcomes such as body weight, body fat, VAT, and BP was performed on all participants [intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis] and compliant participants (complier analysis).Results: Body weight, truncal and total fat percentage, VAT, and systolic BP decreased after 12 wk of energy restriction in both the ITT and complier analyses (P < 0.05). The complier analysis (but not the ITT analysis) indicated a greater mean ± SEM reduction in truncal fat (AED: -1.21% ± 0.26%; NFD: -0.48% ± 0.24%; P = 0.025), total fat (AED: -1.79% ± 0.36%; NFD: -0.74% ± 0.33%; P = 0.035), and diastolic BP (AED: -2.71 ± 1.2 mm Hg; NFD: 0.815 ± 1.1 mm Hg; P = 0.029), and a greater tendency for VAT loss (AED: -8.19 ± 1.8 cm2; NFD: -3.99 ± 1.7 cm2; P = 0.09) over time in the AED group than the NFD group.Conclusions: Moderate almond consumption by compliant overweight and obese individuals during energy restriction results in greater proportional reductions of truncal and total body fat as well as diastolic BP and hence may help to reduce metabolic disease risk in obesity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02360787. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dietary fats contribute to the flavor of foods by multiple mechanisms. A role for their taste has only recently gained credence. Current evidence indicates non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) are the effective stimuli for the taste component. CD36 and GPR120 are putative receptors, but may not fully account for the totality of the range of sensations elicited by fatty acids. The sensory quality of long-chain NEFA is not adequately characterized by commonly accepted taste primary qualities and has been termed oleogustus. There is marked individual variability in sensitivity to the taste of NEFA prompting hypotheses of genetic and environmental determinants. Though an association with BMI has been proposed, the preponderance of evidence is not supportive. The importance of oleogustus has not been fully established, but likely contributes to flavor, which influences food choice as well as lipid metabolism and chronic disease risk. A better understanding of oleogustus may provide insights useful for product formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine temporal trends and determinants of discretionary salt use in the USA. Design: Multiple logistic regression was used to assess temporal trends in discretionary salt use at the table and during home cooking/preparation, adjusting for demographic characteristics, using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2012. Prevalence and determinants of discretionary salt use in 2009-2012 were also examined. Setting: Participants answered salt use questions after completing a 24 h dietary recall in a mobile examination centre. Subjects: Nationally representative sample of non-institutionalized US children and adults, aged ≥2 years. Results: From 2003 to 2012, the proportion of the population who reported using salt 'very often' declined; from 18% to 12% for use at the table (P <0·01) and from 42% to 37% during home cooking (P<0·02). While one-third of the population reported never adding salt at the table, most used it during home cooking/ preparation (93%). Use of discretionary salt was least commonly reported among young children and older adults and demographic and health subgroups at risk of CVD. Conclusions: While most people reported using salt during home cooking/ preparation, a minority reported use at the table. Reported 'very often' discretionary salt use has declined. That discretionary salt use is less common among those at risk of CVD suggests awareness of messages to limit Na intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine temporal trends and determinants of discretionary salt use in the USA.Design: Multiple logistic regression was used to assess temporal trends in discretionary salt use at the table and during home cooking/preparation, adjusting for demographic characteristics, using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2012. Prevalence and determinants of discretionary salt use in 2009-2012 were also examined.Setting: Participants answered salt use questions after completing a 24 h dietary recall in a mobile examination centre.Subjects: Nationally representative sample of non-institutionalized US children and adults, aged ≥2 years.Results: From 2003 to 2012, the proportion of the population who reported using salt 'very often' declined; from 18 % to 12 % for use at the table (P<0·01) and from 42 % to 37 % during home cooking (P<0·02). While one-third of the population reported never adding salt at the table, most used it during home cooking/preparation (93 %). Use of discretionary salt was least commonly reported among young children and older adults and demographic and health subgroups at risk of CVD.Conclusions: While most people reported using salt during home cooking/preparation, a minority reported use at the table. Reported 'very often' discretionary salt use has declined. That discretionary salt use is less common among those at risk of CVD suggests awareness of messages to limit Na intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study on prominence of macronutrients in appetite and energy intake in humans. It states conflict over the roles of macronutrients, namely carbohydrate, protein, and fat, in human health, and mentions studies on physiological processes like metabolic events initiating eating and gut endocrine signals. It notes the role of reward systems in the brain, triggered by macronutrients, in eating.

Findings from studies examining interactions between fat taste and dietary fat intake or body weight are mixed. A convenience sample of 735 visitors to the Denver Museum of Nature & Science ≥8 years old rated the taste intensity of edible taste strips impregnated with varying concentrations (%v/v) of linoleic acid (LA) (blank = 0.0, low = 0.06, medium = 0.15, high = 0.38). Percent body fat (BF%) was measured using bioelectrical impedance. Fat taste intensity was rated as significantly different across all concentrations (P < 0.001) except between the blank and low concentrations (P = 0.1). Ratings increased monotonically across concentrations. Children (<18 years; N = 180) rated all concentrations as more intense than adults (P < 0.001 for all). Women and girls rated the highest concentration as more intense than men and boys (P < 0.02 for all). BF% was not correlated with fat taste intensity ratings. Self-reported dietary intake indicated that obese individuals' intensity ratings for medium and high concentrations of LA were inversely related to recent mono- and poly-unsaturated fat exposure (r = -0.19 to -0.27; P < 0.03 for all). No such associations were observed in the nonobese group. Findings suggest that factors other than simple adiposity status influence fat taste intensity ratings, and that participants in fat taste studies should receive standardized meals prior to testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author discusses a study by E. Robinson and I. Kersbergen on the effect of food portion size and later food intake. Topics include background on interest in physiologic control of portion size to manage energy balance, hypotheses related to cognitive and learning effects, and factors needed in the prevention or treatment of eating-related disorders.

The authors offers their perspectives on the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) that the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Health and Human Services (HHS) department have issued on December 29, 2020. Topics covered include the presence of a strong agreement between the new DGA and 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) report, and the failure of the DGA to adopt reductions in limits on added sugar and alcohol put forth by the 2020 DGAC.

Considerable mechanistic data indicate there may be a sixth basic taste: fat. However, evidence demonstrating that the sensation of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA, the proposed stimuli for "fat taste") differs qualitatively from other tastes is lacking. Using perceptual mapping, we demonstrate that medium and long-chain NEFA have a taste sensation that is distinct from other basic tastes (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter). Although some overlap was observed between these NEFA and umami taste, this overlap is likely due to unfamiliarity with umami sensations rather than true similarity. Shorter chain fatty acids stimulate a sensation similar to sour, but as chain length increases this sensation changes. Fat taste oral signaling, and the different signals caused by different alkyl chain lengths, may hold implications for food product development, clinical practice, and public health policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Consuming alcohol prior to a meal (an apéritif) increases food consumption. This greater food consumption may result from increased activity in brain regions that mediate reward and regulate feeding behavior. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we evaluated the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response to the food aromas of either roast beef or Italian meat sauce following pharmacokinetically controlled intravenous infusion of alcohol.Methods: BOLD activation to food aromas in non-obese women (n = 35) was evaluated once during intravenous infusion of 6% v/v EtOH, clamped at a steady-state breath alcohol concentration of 50 mg%, and once during infusion of saline using matching pump rates. Ad libitum intake of roast beef with noodles or Italian meat sauce with pasta following imaging was recorded.Results: BOLD activation to food relative to non-food odors in the hypothalamic area was increased during alcohol pre-load when compared to saline. Food consumption was significantly greater, and levels of ghrelin were reduced, following alcohol.Conclusions: An alcohol pre-load increased food consumption and potentiated differences between food and non-food BOLD responses in the region of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus may mediate the interplay of alcohol and responses to food cues, thus playing a role in the apéritif phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Consuming alcohol prior to a meal (an apéritif) increases food consumption. This greater food consumption may result from increased activity in brain regions that mediate reward and regulate feeding behavior. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we evaluated the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) response to the food aromas of either roast beef or Italian meat sauce following pharmacokinetically controlled intravenous infusion of alcohol. Methods BOLD activation to food aromas in non-obese women ( n = 35) was evaluated once during intravenous infusion of 6% v/v EtOH, clamped at a steady-state breath alcohol concentration of 50 mg%, and once during infusion of saline using matching pump rates. Ad libitum intake of roast beef with noodles or Italian meat sauce with pasta following imaging was recorded. Results BOLD activation to food relative to non-food odors in the hypothalamic area was increased during alcohol pre-load when compared to saline. Food consumption was significantly greater, and levels of ghrelin were reduced, following alcohol. Conclusions An alcohol pre-load increased food consumption and potentiated differences between food and non-food BOLD responses in the region of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus may mediate the interplay of alcohol and responses to food cues, thus playing a role in the apéritif phenomenon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past 20 y, higher-protein diets have been touted as a successful strategy to prevent or treat obesity through improvements in body weight management. These improvements are thought to be due, in part, to modulations in energy metabolism, appetite, and energy intake. Recent evidence also supports higher-protein diets for improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors. This article provides an overview of the literature that explores the mechanisms of action after acute protein consumption and the clinical health outcomes after consumption of long-term, higher-protein diets. Several meta-analyses of shorter-term, tightly controlled feeding studies showed greater weight loss, fat mass loss, and preservation of lean mass after higher-protein energy-restriction diets than after lower-protein energy-restriction diets. Reductions in triglycerides, blood pressure, and waist circumference were also reported. In addition, a review of the acute feeding trials confirms a modest satiety effect, including greater perceived fullness and elevated satiety hormones after higher-protein meals but does not support an effect on energy intake at the next eating occasion. Although shorter-term, tightly controlled feeding studies consistently identified benefits with increased protein consumption, longer-term studies produced limited and conflicting findings; nevertheless, a recent meta-analysis showed persistent benefits of a higher-protein weight-loss diet on body weight and fat mass. Dietary compliance appears to be the primary contributor to the discrepant findings because improvements in weight management were detected in those who adhered to the prescribed higher-protein regimen, whereas those who did not adhere to the diet had no marked improvements. Collectively, these data suggest that higher-protein diets that contain between 1.2 and 1.6 g protein ・ kg-1 ・ d-1 and potentially include meal-specific protein quantities of at least ~25-30 g protein/meal provide improvements in appetite, body weight management, cardiometabolic risk factors, or all of these health outcomes; however, further strategies to increase dietary compliance with long-term dietary interventions are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Many individuals have difficulty adhering to a weight loss diet. One possible explanation could be that dietary restriction paradoxically contributes to overconsumption. The objective of this study was to examine ingestive behavior under a forced chocolate restriction with a focus on the anticipatory restriction period and the post-restriction period in frequent chocolate consumers. Methods Fifty-six male ( N = 18) and female ( N = 38) high chocolate consumers with high ( N = 25) or low ( N = 31) cognitive disinhibition participated. Chocolate snacks were provided for a week each to establish baseline, pre-restriction, and post-restriction consumption, Chocolate snacks were replaced with nonchocolate snacks during a 3-week chocolate restriction period. Results Highly disinhibited participants felt more guilty and consumed significantly more energy than low disinhibited participants across snack conditions. Low disinhibited participants consumed significantly less in the post-restriction period compared to baseline and the pre-restriction period, while high disinhibited participants consumed the same amount across all conditions. Aggregating the data, high and low disinhibited chocolate consumers ate snacks more frequently in the pre- and post-restriction periods compared to the baseline period. Conclusions This study suggests that for some individuals, restriction of a preferred food like chocolate may be contraindicated for energy restriction and weight management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews current research and cross-disciplinary perspectives on the neuroscience of food reward in animals and humans, examines the scientific hypothesis of food addiction, discusses methodological and terminology challenges, and identifies knowledge gaps and future research needs. Topics addressed herein include the role of reward and hedonic aspects in the regulation of food intake, neuroanatomy and neurobiology of the reward system in animals and humans, responsivity of the brain reward system to palatable foods and drugs, translation of craving versus addiction, and cognitive control of food reward. The content is based on a workshop held in 2013 by the North American Branch of the International Life Sciences Institute. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health concerns have led to recommendations to replace saturated fats with unsaturated fats. However, addition of unsaturated fatty acids may lead to changes in the way foods are perceived in the oral cavity. This study tested the taste sensitivity to and emulsion characteristics of oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids. The hypothesis tested was that oral sensitivity to nonesterified fatty acids would increase with degree of unsaturation but that in vitro viscosities and particle sizes of these emulsions would not differ. Oral taste thresholds were obtained using the three-alternative, forced-choice, ascending method. Each participant was tested on each fat 7 times, for a total of 21 study visits, to account for learning effects. Viscosities were obtained for the blank solutions and all three emulsions. Results indicate lower oral thresholds to linoleic and α-linolenic than oleic acid. At higher shear rates, 5% oleic and linoleic acid were more viscous than other samples. More-dilute emulsions showed no significant differences in viscosity. Particle sizes of the emulsions increased very slightly with increasing unsaturation. Together, the emulsion characteristics and oral sensitivity data support a taste mechanism for nonesterified fatty acid detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A common dietary recommendation for weight loss, especially in lay public outlets, is to eat more fruit and vegetables (F/Vs). Without a compensatory reduction in total energy intake, significant weight loss would be unlikely. Objective: We aimed to synthesize the best available evidence on the effectiveness of the general recommendation to eat more F/Vs for weight loss or the prevention of weight gain. Design: We searched multiple databases for human randomized controlled trials that evaluated the effect of increased F/V intake on body weight. Inclusion criteria were as follows: ≥15 subjects/treatment arm, ≥8-wk intervention, a stated primary or secondary outcome of body weight, the stated goal of the intervention was weight or fat loss or the prevention of weight or fat gain, and food intake provided or prescribed was of a variety of F/Vs that remained minimally processed. Results: Two studies met all criteria; 5 other studies met all criteria but one. The primary analysis indicated an effect size of weight change (outcome of interest) from baseline [standardized mean difference (SMD) for studies that met all criteria] of -0.16 (95% CI: -0.78, 0.46) (P = 0.60). The SMD for 7 studies that met all or most criteria was 0.04 (95% CI: -0.10, 0.17) (P = 0.62). Conclusions: Studies to date do not support the proposition that recommendations to increase F/V intake or the home delivery or provision of F/Vs will cause weight loss. On the basis of the current evidence, recommending increased F/V consumption to treat or prevent obesity without explicitly combining this approach with efforts to reduce intake of other energy sources is unwarranted. This systematic review and meta-analysis was registered at http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/ as CRD42013004688 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acids that vary in chain length and degree of unsaturation have different effects on metabolism and human health. As evidence for a "taste" of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) accumulates, it may be hypothesized that fatty acid structures will also influence oral sensations. The present study examined oral sensitivity to caproic (C6), lauric (C12), and oleic (C18:1) acids over repeated visits. Analyses were also conducted on textural properties of NEFA emulsions and blank solutions. Oral thresholds for caproic acid were lower compared with oleic acid. Lauric acid thresholds were intermediate but not significantly different from either, likely due to lingering irritating sensations that prevented accurate discrimination. From particle size analysis, larger droplets were observed in blank solutions when mineral oil was used, leading to instability of the emulsion, which was not observed when emulsions contained NEFA or when mineral oil was removed from the blank. Rheological data showed no differences in viscosity among samples except for a slightly higher viscosity with oleic acid concentrations above 58 mM. Thus, texture was unlikely to be the property used to distinguish between the samples. Differences in oral detection and sensation of caproic, lauric, and oleic acids may be due to different properties of the fatty acid alkyl chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tree nuts and peanuts are good sources of many nutrients and antioxidants, but they are also energy dense. The latter often limits intake because of concerns about their possible contribution to positive energy balance. However, evidence to date suggests that nuts are not associated with predicted weight gain. This is largely due to their high satiety value, leading to strong compensatory dietary responses, inefficiency in absorption of the energy they contain, a possible increment in resting energy expenditure, and an augmentation of fat oxidation. Preliminary evidence suggests that these properties are especially evident when they are consumed as snacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lingual lipase generates nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) from dietary fats during oral processing by lipolysis. Lingual lipase in rodents has strong lipolytic activity and plays a critical role in oral detection of fats. The functional activity of lingual lipase during oral processing of high-fat foods in humans remains poorly characterized. Five commonly consumed high-fat foods varying in physical states and fatty acid composition (almond, almond butter, olive oil, walnut, and coconut) were masticated by 15 healthy human subjects at the rate of one chew per second with and without lipase inhibitor orlistat. Salivary NEFA concentrations were measured. To determine the role of lingual lipase in oral fat detection, sensory ratings were obtained from the same 15 human subjects for almond butter with and without orlistat. Lingual lipase was active during oral processing of almond and coconut. No activity of lingual lipase was detected during processing of almond butter. There was only weak evidence lingual lipase is a determinant of oral fat detection. Lingual lipase may only contribute to NEFA generation and oral fat detection of fatty foods that require stronger oral processing effort [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The protein leverage hypothesis requires specific evidence that protein intake is regulated more strongly than energy intake. Objective: The objective was to determine ad libitum energy intake, body weight changes, appetite profile, and nitrogen balance in response to 3 diets with different protein-to-carbohydrate + fat ratios over 12 consecutive days, with beef as a source of protein. Design: A 3-arm, 12-d randomized crossover study was performed in 30 men and 28 women [mean ± SD age: 33 ± 16 y; body mass index (in kg/m²): 24.4 ± 4.0] with the use of diets containing 5%, 15%, and 30% of energy (En%) from protein, predominantly from beef. Results: Energy intake was significantly lower in the 30En%-protein condition (8.73 ± 1.93 MJ/d) than in the 5En%-protein (9.48 ± 1.67 MJ/d) and 15En%-protein (9.30 ± 1.62 MJ/d) conditions (P = 0.001), stemming largely from lower energy intake during meals (P = 0.001). Hunger (P = 0.001) and desire to eat (P = 0.001) ratings were higher and fullness ratings were lower (P = 0.001) in the 5En%-protein condition than in the 15En%-protein and 30En%-protein conditions. Nitrogen excretion was lower in the 5En%-protein condition (4.7 ± 1.5 g/24 h; P = 0.001) and was higher in the 30En%-protein condition (15.3 ± 8.7 g/24 h; P = 0.001) compared with the 15En%-protein condition (10.0 ± 5.2 g/24 h). Nitrogen balance was maintained in the 5En%-protein condition and was positive in the 15En%- and 30En%-protein conditions (P = 0.001). Conclusions: Complete protein leverage did not occur because subjects did not consume to a common protein amount at the expense of energy balance. Individuals did underconsume relative to energy requirements from high-protein diets. The lack of support for protein leverage effects on a low-protein diet may stem from the fact that protein intake was sufficient to maintain nitrogen balance over the 12-d trial. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01646749. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sensory properties of foods promote and guide consumption in hunger states, whereas satiation should dampen the sensory activation of ingestive behaviors. Such activation may be disordered in obese individuals. Objective: Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we studied regional brain responses to food odor stimulation in the sated state in obese and normal-weight individuals targeting ventral frontal regions known to be involved in coding for stimulus reward value. Design: Forty-eight women (25 normal weight; 23 obese) participated in a 2-day (fed compared with fasting) fMRI study while smelling odors of 2 foods and an inedible, nonfood object. Analyses were conducted to permit an examination of both general and sensory-specific satiation (satiation effects specific to a given food). Results: Normal-weight subjects showed significant blood oxygen level-dependent responses in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) to food aromas compared with responses induced by the odor of an inedible object. Normal-weight subjects also showed general (but not sensory-specific) satiation effects in both the vmPFC and orbitofrontal cortex. Obese subjects showed no differential response to the aromas of food and the inedible object when fasting. Within- and between-group differences in satiation were driven largely by changes in the response to the odor of the inedible stimulus. Responses to food aromas in the obese correlated with trait negative urgency, the tendency toward negative affect-provoked impulsivity. Conclusions: Ventral frontal signaling of reward value may be disordered in obesity, with negative urgency heightening responses to food aromas. The observed nature of responses to food and nonfood stimuli suggests that future research should independently quantify each to fully understand brain reward signaling in obesity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02041039. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to examine the reliability of associations between fat taste, hunger, dietary fat intake, and body mass index (BMI). Detection thresholds for oleic acid (OA) were obtained during each of 7 consecutive visits using a modified staircase procedure. Participants were 48 (N = 17 male; N = 31 female) healthy adults (mean age: 28.5±10.4 years) with BMI’s ranging from 18.9 to 47.2 (≥25 kg·m−2, N = 24). OA detection thresholds and self-reported hunger (100-mm visual analog scale) were assessed at each visit. BMI and dietary fat intake (Block Rapid Fat Screener) were determined at baseline. There was a significant decrease of threshold concentration over repeated trials among lean and overweight (BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 kg·m−2) participants but not in the obese. Combining the lean and overweight and contrasting their responses to the obese revealed the lean plus overweight group to be significantly more sensitive at visits 6 and 7. No change of threshold sensitivity or correlation with fat intake was observed in the obese participants unlike findings in the lean and lean plus overweight participants. Correlations between saturated fat intake and threshold sensitivity were positive (greater intake associated with higher thresholds) at baseline for the group, with additional correlations observed among the lean plus overweight but not in the obese, leaving open questions about the nutritional significance of the association. No significant associations were observed between sensitivity to OA and hunger. Repeated testing is required to assess associations between fat taste and other outcome variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence supporting a 'taste' cue from fat in the oral cavity continues to accrue. The proposed stimuli for fat taste, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), are released from food through hydrolytic rancidity and lipase activity derived from foods or saliva. NEFA must then be released from the food matrix, negotiate the aqueous environment to reach taste cell surfaces, and interact with receptors such as CD36 and GPR120 or diffuse across cell membranes to initiate a taste signal. Knowledge of these processes in non-gustatory tissues should inform understanding of taste responses to NEFA. Additionally, downstream effects of oral triglyceride exposure have been observed in numerous studies. Data specific to effects of NEFA versus triglyceride are scarce, but modified sham feeding trials with triglyceride document cephalic phase responses including elevations in serum lipids and insulin as well as potential, but debated, effects on gut peptides, appetite, and thermogenesis. In this review, we highlight the mechanisms by which NEFA migrate to and interact with taste cells, and then we examine physiological responses to oral fat exposure. © 2014 BioFactors, 40(3):313-326, 2014 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Chronic peanut consumption is associated with health benefits. To encourage consumption, peanuts are marketed with various flavorings, but questions have been raised as to whether seasonings offset the benefits of peanuts alone. Objective: This study sought to determine whether flavorings on peanuts affect health benefits over 12 wk. Design: In a randomized, parallel-group trial, 151 participants received 42 g peanuts/d as 14-g servings of 3 different flavors (n = 50) or a single flavor (n = 25-26/group). Anthropometric indexes, blood pressure, and heart rate were measured biweekly. Cardiovascular disease risk factors (serum lipids, insulin, glucose, and cortisol) were assessed monthly. Results: No single added flavor differentially altered body weight, body fat, body mass index, heart rate, or blood indexes in the total sample. Participants at greater risk of cardiovascular disease had significantly greater mean (±SE) reductions in diastolic blood pressure (-5.0 ± 1.7 mm Hg compared with -0.7 ± 0.6 mm Hg), cholesterol (-12.1 ± 8.5 mg/dL compared with +5.6 ± 2.0 mg/dL), and triglycerides (-31.7 ± 15.8 mg/dL compared with +2.3 ± 3.0 mg/dL) (n = 27, 24, and 15, respectively; P < 0.01) than did those at lower risk, who did not have significantly different cholesterol or triglyceride concentrations. Consumption of a variety of flavors led to greater weight gain (0.9 ± 0.3 kg) compared with individual flavors alone (0.5 ± 0.2 kg) (P < 0.05), but increases in fat and lean masses were not significant. Conclusions: Regardless of flavoring, peanut consumption offered significant benefits to participants with elevated serum lipids and blood pressure. Sensory variety led to a small, but significant, increase in body weight in comparison with ingestion of a single flavor but no change in fat mass. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01886326. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nut consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of adding peanuts (whole or peanut butter) on first (0–240 min)- and second (240–490 min)-meal glucose metabolism and selected gut satiety hormone responses, appetite ratings and food intake in obese women with high T2DM risk. A group of fifteen women participated in a randomised cross-over clinical trial in which 42·5 g of whole peanuts without skins (WP), peanut butter (PB) or no peanuts (control) were added to a 75 g available carbohydrate-matched breakfast meal. Postprandial concentrations (0–490 min) of glucose, insulin, NEFA, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY), cholecystokinin (CCK), appetitive sensations and food intake were assessed after breakfast treatments and a standard lunch. Postprandial NEFA incremental AUC (IAUC) (0–240 min) and glucose IAUC (240–490 min) responses were lower for the PB breakfast compared with the control breakfast. Insulin concentrations were higher at 120 and 370 min after the PB consumption than after the control consumption. Desire-to-eat ratings were lower, while PYY, GLP-1 and CCK concentrations were higher after the PB intake compared with the control intake. WP led to similar but non-significant effects. The addition of PB to breakfast moderated postprandial glucose and NEFA concentrations, enhanced gut satiety hormone secretion and reduced the desire to eat. The greater bioaccessibility of the lipid component in PB is probably responsible for the observed incremental post-ingestive responses between the nut forms. Inclusion of PB, and probably WP, to breakfast may help to moderate glucose concentrations and appetite in obese women. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Findings that support the ability of humans to taste nonesterified fatty acids have been qualified by claims of substantial individual variability in sensitivity. We tested whether the number of testing visits impacted detection thresholds. Additionally, we explored the possibility that methodological differences in reported studies contributed to the high level of variance. Participants were randomized to either the modified staircase or ascending 3-alternative forced-choice methods, completed 10 test visits, and then switched to the alternate method. Repeated testing lowered the threshold concentration, and regardless of starting method, threshold concentrations were significantly lower with the second method. The staircase method generated data with less variation. The ascending method appears to be able to distinguish hypo and hypersensitive individuals as the variance at each visit increased over time, suggesting that the top performers continued to improve while the hyposensitive subjects maintained their low level of performance. The best individual threshold performance (lowest stimulus concentration) at each visit was obtained with the ascending method for 7 out of the first 10 visits (P = 0.117) and 17 out of the 20 visits (P = 0.001). Despite potential advantages of the ascending method in terms of sensitivity separation, there was no difference between the median of the first 10 visits, second 10 visits, and overall median obtained by the 2 testing methods. The most appropriate detection threshold testing method will depend on the goals of the researcher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Laboratory studies suggest that food form (beverages compared with solid foods) evokes behavioral and physiologic responses that modify short-term appetite and food intake. Beverage energy may be less satiating and poorly compensated, which leads to higher energy intake. Objective: We examined associations between 24-h energy consumed in beverages and a variety of meal and dietary attributes to quantify the contribution of beverage consumption to the energy content of diets in free-living individuals consuming their self- selected diets. Design: We used dietary recall data for adults (n = 13,704) in NHANES 2003-2008 to examine the multiple covariate-adjusted associations between 24-h energy from beverages and nonbeverages and associations between beverage intake, eating behaviors, and the energy density of beverage and nonbeverage foods. Results: In the highest tertile of 24-h beverage energy intake, beverages provided >30% of energy. Total 24-h energy and non- beverage energy consumption and energy density (kcal/g) of both beverage and nonbeverage foods increased with increasing energy from beverages (P < 0.0001). With increasing 24-h beverage energy consumption, the reported frequency of all, snack, and beverage-only ingestive episodes and length of the ingestive period increased, whereas the percentage of energy from main meals decreased (P < 0.0001). Conclusions: Higher 24-h beverage energy intake was related to higher energy intake from nonbeverage foods, quality of food selections, and distribution of 24-h energy into main meal and snack episodes. Moderation of beverage-only ingestive episodes and curtailing the length of the ingestion period may hold potential to lower uncompensated beverage energy consumption in the US population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beverage consumption has been implicated in weight gain, but questions remain about the veracity of the association, whether the relationship is causal and what property of beverages is responsible. It was hypothesized that food form is the most salient attribute. Thus, a randomized controlled trial of food form was conducted. Energy-matched beverage or solid forms of fruits and vegetables were provided to 34, lean or overweight/obese adults for two 8-week periods with a 3-week washout interspersed. Dietary compensation was incomplete (beverage 53%; solid 78%) and body weight increased after the beverage (1.95 ± 0.33 kg) (77% fat mass) and solid (1.36 ± 0.30 kg) (85% fat mass) treatments (both P < 0.0005). Differences between food forms were not significant. The lean group had the highest dietary compensation (119%) and no significant weight change (0.84 ± 0.53 kg) after consuming the solid fruits and vegetables whereas the overweight/obese group had lower compensation and significant weight gain during the solid arm (46%, 1.77 ± 0.32 kg, P < 0.0001). In contrast, incomplete dietary compensation and weight gain occurred in both the lean (43%, 1.61 ± 0.44 kg, P = 0.003) and overweight/obese (61%, 2.22 ± 0.47 kg, P < 0.0005) groups during the beverage arm. Secondary analyses revealed the obese group gained more weight than the lean and overweight groups during the beverage intervention (P = 0.024). These data demonstrate energy consumed as beverages may be especially problematic for weight gain. They also indicate that advice to increase fruit and vegetable consumption should emphasize total energy intake because the additional energy contributed may promote weight gain, especially among overweight and obese individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salivary non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) are proposed to play a role in oral health, oral fat detection, and they may hold diagnostic and prognostic potential. Yet, little is known about the array and concentrations of NEFA in saliva. The aim of the study was to conduct qualitative and quantitative analyses of salivary NEFA in healthy humans and to present a new, efficient protocol to perform such analyses. Resting saliva samples from fifteen participants were collected. The salivary lipids were extracted using a modified Folch extraction. The NEFA in the extracted lipids were selectively subjected to pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFB) derivatization and qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 16 NEFA were identified in resting saliva. The four major NEFA were palmitic, linoleic, oleic, and stearic acids. Their concentrations ranged from 2 to 9 μM. This is the first study to characterize individual human salivary NEFA and their respective concentrations. The method used in the study is sensitive, precise, and accurate. It is specific to fatty acids in non-esterified form and hence enables analysis of NEFA without their separation from other lipid classes. Thus, it saves time, reagents and prevents loss of sample. These properties make it suitable for large scale analysis of salivary NEFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salivary NEFA are proposed to play a role in oral health, oral fat detection, and they may hold diagnostic and prognostic potential. Yet, little is known about the array and concentrations of NEFA in saliva. The aim of the study was to conduct qualitative and quantitative analysis of salivary NEFA in healthy humans and to present a new, efficient protocol to perform such analyses. Resting saliva samples from fifteen participants were collected. The salivary lipids were extracted using a modified Folch extraction. The NEFA in the extracted lipids were selectively subjected to pentafluorobenzyl bromide derivatization and qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. A total 16 NEFA were identified in resting saliva. The four major NEFA were palmitic, linoleic, oleic and stearic acids. Their concentrations ranged from 2-9 micromolar. This is the first study to characterize individual human salivary NEFA and their respective concentrations. The method used in the study is sensitive, precise, and accurate. It is specific to fatty acids in non-esterified form and hence enables analysis of NEFA without their separation from other lipid classes. Thus, it saves time, reagents and prevents loss of sample. These properties make it suitable for large scale analysis of salivary NEFA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Beverage consumption is implicated in the overweight/ obesity epidemic through the weaker energy compensation response it elicits compared with solid food forms. However, plausible mechanisms are not documented. Objective: This study assessed the cognitive and sensory contributions of differential postingestive responses to energy- and macronutrient- matched liquid (in beverage form) and solid food forms and identifies physiologic processes that may account for them. Design: Fifty-two healthy adults [mean ± SD age: 24.7 ± 5.5 y; BMI (in kg/m2): 26.3 ± 6.3] completed this randomized, 4-arm crossover study. Participants consumed oral liquid and solid preloads that they perceived, through cognitive manipulation, to be liquid or solid in their stomach (ie, oral liquid/perceived gastric liquid, oral liquid/perceived gastric solid, oral solid/perceived gastric liquid, or oral solid/perceived gastric solid). However, all preloads were designed to present a liquid gastric challenge. Appetite, gastric-emptying and orocecal transit times, and selected endocrine responses were monitored for the following 4 h; total energy intake was also recorded. Results: Oral-liquid and perceived gastric-liquid preloads elicited greater postprandial hunger and lower fullness sensations, more rapid gastric-emptying and orocecal transit times, attenuated insulin and glucagon-like peptide 1 release, and lower ghrelin suppression than did responses after oral-solid and perceived gastric-solid treatments (all P < 0.05). Faster gastric-emptying times were significantly associated with greater energy intake after consumption of perceived gastric-liquid preloads (P < 0.05). Energy intake was greater on days when perceived gastric-liquid preloads were consumed than when perceived gastric solids were consumed (2311 ± 95 compared with 1897 ± 72 kcal, P = 0.007). Conclusions: These data document sensory and cognitive effects of food form on ingestive behavior and identify physical and endocrine variables that may account for the low satiety value of beverages. They are consistent with findings that clear, energy-yielding beverages pose a particular risk for positive energy balance. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCTO1070199. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The popularity of low- and reduced-fat foods has increased as consumers seek to decrease their energy consumption. Fat replacers may be used in fat-reduced products to maintain their sensory properties. However, these ingredients have been largely formulated to replicate nongustatory properties of fats to foods and have only achieved moderate success. There is increasing evidence that fats also activate the taste system and uniquely evoke responses that may influence product acceptance. Work supporting a taste component of fat has prompted questions about whether fat constitutes an additional 'primary' or 'basic' taste quality. This review briefly summarizes this evidence, focusing on human studies, when possible. Effective stimuli, possible receptors, and physiological changes due to oral fat exposure are discussed. Some studies suggest that there are fatty acid tasters and nontasters and if verified could have implications for targeted product development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption of spicy foods containing capsaicin, the major pungent principle in hot peppers, reportedly promotes negative energy balance. However, many individuals abstain from spicy foods due to the sensory burn and pain elicited by the capsaicin molecule. A potential alternative for nonusers of spicy foods who wish to exploit this energy balance property is consumption of nonpungent peppers rich in capsiate, a recently identified nonpungent capsaicin analog contained in CH-19 Sweet peppers. Capsiate activates transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype 1 (TRPV1) receptors in the gut but not in the oral cavity. This paper critically evaluates current knowledge on the thermogenic and appetitive effects of capsaicin and capsiate from foods and in supplemental form. Meta-analyses were performed on thermogenic outcomes, with a systematic review conducted for both thermogenic and appetitive outcomes. Evidence indicates that capsaicin and capsiate both augment energy expenditure and enhance fat oxidation, especially at high doses. Furthermore, the balance of the literature suggests that capsaicin and capsiate suppress orexigenic sensations. The magnitude of these effects is small. Purposeful inclusion of these compounds in the diet may aid weight management, albeit modestly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]