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Context. Modeling the convection process is a long-standing problem in stellar physics. To date, all ad hoc models have relied on a free parameter, α, (among others) that has no real physical justification and is therefore poorly constrained. However, a link exists between this free parameter and the entropy of the stellar adiabat. There are existing prescriptions, derived from 3D stellar atmospheric models, that treat entropy as a function of stellar atmospheric parameters (effective temperature, surface gravity, and chemical composition). This can offer sufficient constraints on α through the development of entropy-calibrated models. However, several questions have arisen as these models are increasingly used with respect to which prescription should be used and whether it ought to be used in its original form, along with the impacts of uncertainties on entropy-calibrated models. Aims. We aim to study the three existing prescriptions in detail and determine which of them demonstrate the most optimal performance and how it should be applied. Methods. We implemented the entropy-calibration method into the stellar evolution code (Cesam2k20) and performed comparisons with the Sun and the α Cen system. In addition, we used data from the CIFIST grid of 3D atmosphere models to evaluate the accuracy of the prescriptions. Results. Of the three entropy prescriptions currently available, we determined the one that has the best functional form for reproducing the entropies of the 3D models. However, the coefficients involved in this formulation must not be taken from the original paper because they were calibrated against a flawed set of entropies. We also demonstrate that the entropy obtained from this prescription should be corrected for the evolving chemical composition and for an entropy offset different between various EoS tables. This must be done following a precise procedure to ensure that the classical parameters obtained from the models are not strongly biased. Finally, we provide a data table with entropy of the adiabat of the CIFIST grid, along with the fits for these entropies. Conclusions. Thanks to a precise examination of entropy-calibrated modeling, we are able to offer our recommendations with respect to which adiabatic entropy prescription to use, how to correct it, and how to implement the method into a stellar evolution code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use the ESPRESSO spectrograph at the Very Large Telescope to measure velocity shifts and gravitational redshifts of eight bona fide Hyades white dwarfs, with an accuracy better than 1.5 per cent. By comparing the gravitational redshift measurements of the mass-to-radius ratio with the same ratios derived by fitting the Gaia photometry with theoretical models, we find an agreement to better than one per cent. It is possible to reproduce the observed white dwarf cooling sequence and the trend of the mass-to-radius ratios as a function of colour using isochrones with ages between 725 and 800 Myr, tuned for the Hyades. One star, EGGR 29, consistently stands out in all diagrams, indicating that it is possibly the remnant of a blue straggler. We also computed mass-to-radius ratios from published gravities and masses, determined from spectroscopy. The comparison between photometric and spectroscopic stellar parameters reveals that spectroscopic effective temperature and gravity are systematically larger than the photometric values. Spectroscopic mass-to-radius ratios disagree with those measured from gravitational redshift, indicating the presence of systematics affecting the white dwarf parameters derived from the spectroscopic analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of space-borne missions has significantly improved the quality of the measured spectra of solar-like oscillators. Their p-mode line profiles can now be resolved, and the asymmetries inferred for a variety of stars other than the Sun. However, it has been known for a long time that the asymmetries of solar p-modes are reversed between the velocity and the intensity spectra. Understanding the origin of this reversal is necessary in order to use asymmetries as a tool for seismic diagnosis. For stars other than the Sun, only the intensity power spectrum is sufficiently resolved to allow for an estimation of mode asymmetries. We recently developed an approach designed to model and predict these asymmetries in the velocity power spectrum of the Sun and to successfully compare them to their observationally derived counterpart. In this paper we expand our model and predict the asymmetries featured in the intensity power spectrum. We find that the shape of the mode line profiles in intensity is largely dependent on how the oscillation-induced variations of the radiative flux are treated, and that modelling it realistically is crucial to understanding asymmetry reversal. Perturbing a solar-calibrated grey atmosphere model, and adopting the quasi-adiabatic framework as a first step, we reproduce the asymmetries observed in the solar intensity spectrum for low-frequency modes. We conclude that, unlike previously thought, it is not necessary to invoke an additional mechanism (e.g. non-adiabatic effects, coherent non-resonant background signal) to explain asymmetry reversal. This additional mechanism is necessary, however, to explain asymmetry reversal for higher-order modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The general theory of relativity predicts the redshift of spectral lines in the solar photosphere as a consequence of the gravitational potential of the Sun. This effect can be measured from a solar disk-integrated flux spectrum of the Sun's reflected light on Solar System bodies. Aims. The laser frequency comb (LFC) calibration system attached to the HARPS spectrograph offers the possibility of performing an accurate measurement of the solar gravitational redshift (GRS) by observing the Moon or other Solar System bodies. Here, we analyse the line shift observed in Fe absorption lines from five high-quality HARPS-LFC spectra of the Moon. Methods. We selected an initial sample of 326 photospheric Fe lines in the spectral range between 476–585 nm and measured their line positions and equivalent widths (EWs). Accurate line shifts were derived from the wavelength position of the core of the lines compared with the laboratory wavelengths of Fe lines. We also used a CO5BOLD 3D hydrodynamical model atmosphere of the Sun to compute 3D synthetic line profiles of a subsample of about 200 spectral Fe lines centred at their laboratory wavelengths. We fit the observed relatively weak spectral Fe lines (with EW< 180 mÅ) with the 3D synthetic profiles. Results. Convective motions in the solar photosphere do not affect the line cores of Fe lines stronger than about ∼150 mÅ. In our sample, only 15 Fe I lines have EWs in the range 150< EW(mÅ) < 550, providing a measurement of the solar GRS at 639 ± 14 m s−1, which is consistent with the expected theoretical value on Earth of ∼633.1 m s−1. A final sample of about 97 weak Fe lines with EW < 180 mÅ allows us to derive a mean global line shift of 638 ± 6 m s−1, which is in agreement with the theoretical solar GRS. Conclusions. These are the most accurate measurements of the solar GRS obtained thus far. Ultrastable spectrographs calibrated with the LFC over a larger spectral range, such as HARPS or ESPRESSO, together with a further improvement on the laboratory wavelengths, could provide a more robust measurement of the solar GRS and further testing of 3D hydrodynamical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The advent of space-borne missions has substantially increased the number and quality of the measured power spectrum of solar-like oscillators. It now allows for the p-mode line profiles to be resolved and facilitates an estimation of their asymmetry. The fact that this asymmetry can be measured for a variety of stars other than the Sun calls for a revisiting of acoustic mode asymmetry modelling. This asymmetry has been shown to be related to a highly localised source of stochastic driving in layers just beneath the surface. However, existing models assume a very simplified, point-like source of excitation. Furthermore, mode asymmetry could also be impacted by a correlation between the acoustic noise and the oscillating mode. Prior studies have modelled this impact, but only in a parametrised fashion, which deprives them of their predictive power. Aims. In this paper, we aim to develop a predictive model for solar radial p-mode line profiles in the velocity spectrum. Unlike the approach favoured by prior studies, this model is not described by free parameters and we do not use fitting procedures to match the observations. Instead, we use an analytical turbulence model coupled with constraints extracted from a 3D hydrodynamic simulation of the solar atmosphere. We then compare the resulting asymmetries with their observationally derived counterpart. Methods. We model the velocity power spectral density by convolving a realistic stochastic source term with the Green's function associated with the radial homogeneous wave equation. We compute the Green's function by numerically integrating the wave equation and we use theoretical considerations to model the source term. We reconstruct the velocity power spectral density and extract the line profile of radial p-modes as well as their asymmetry. Results. We find that stochastic excitation localised beneath the mode upper turning point generates negative asymmetry for v < vmax and positive asymmetry for v > vmax. On the other hand, stochastic excitation localised above this limit generates negative asymmetry throughout the p-mode spectrum. As a result of the spatial extent of the source of excitation, both cases play a role in the total observed asymmetries. By taking this spatial extent into account and using a realistic description of the spectrum of turbulent kinetic energy, both a qualitative and quantitative agreement can be found with solar observations performed by the GONG network. We also find that the impact of the correlation between acoustic noise and oscillation is negligible for mode asymmetry in the velocity spectrum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We perform a calibration of the mixing-length parameter at the bottom boundary of the convection zone for helium-dominated atmospheres of white dwarfs. This calibration is based on a grid of 3D DB (pure-helium) and DBA (helium-dominated with traces of hydrogen) model atmospheres computed with the co5bold  radiation-hydrodynamics code, and a grid of 1D DB and DBA envelope structures. The 3D models span a parameter space of hydrogen-to-helium abundances in the range −10.0 ≤ log (H/He) ≤−2.0, surface gravities in the range 7.5 ≤ log  g  ≤ 9.0, and effective temperatures in the range 12 000 K ≲  T eff ≲ 34 000 K. The 1D envelopes cover a similar atmospheric parameter range, but are also calculated with different values of the mixing-length parameter, namely 0.4 ≤ ML2/α ≤ 1.4. The calibration is performed based on two definitions of the bottom boundary of the convection zone: the Schwarzschild and the zero convective flux boundaries. Thus, our calibration is relevant for applications involving the bulk properties of the convection zone including its total mass, which excludes the spectroscopic technique. Overall, the calibrated ML2/α is smaller than what is commonly used in evolutionary models and theoretical determinations of the blue edge of the instability strip for pulsating DB and DBA stars. With calibrated ML2/α we are able to deduce more accurate convection zone sizes needed for studies of planetary debris mixing and dredge-up of carbon from the core. We highlight this by calculating examples of metal-rich 3D DBAZ models and finding their convection zone masses. Mixing-length calibration represents the first step of in-depth investigations of convective overshoot in white dwarfs with helium-dominated atmospheres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. It is possible to accurately measure the masses of the white dwarfs (WDs) in the Hyades cluster using gravitational redshift, because the radial velocity of the stars can be obtained independently of spectroscopy from astrometry and the cluster has a low velocity dispersion. Aims. We aim to obtain an accurate measurement of the Hyades WD masses by determining the mass-to-radius ratio (M/R) from the observed gravitational redshift, and to compare them with masses derived from other methods. Methods. We analyse archive high-resolution UVES-VLT spectra of six WDs belonging to the Hyades to measure their Doppler shift, from which M/R is determined after subtracting the astrometric radial velocity. We estimate the radii using Gaia photometry as well as literature data. Results. The M/R error associated to the gravitational redshift measurement is about 5%. The radii estimates, evaluated with different methods, are in very good agreement, though they can differ by up to 4% depending on the quality of the data. The masses based on gravitational redshift are systematically smaller than those derived from other methods, by a minimum of ∼0.02 up to 0.05 solar masses. While this difference is within our measurement uncertainty, the fact that it is systematic indicates a likely real discrepancy between the different methods. Conclusions. We show that the M/R derived from gravitational redshift measurements is a powerful tool to determine the masses of the Hyades WDs and could reveal interesting properties of their atmospheres. The technique can be improved by using dedicated spectrographs, and can be extended to other clusters, making it unique in its ability to accurately and empirically determine the masses of WDs in open clusters. At the same time we prove that gravitational redshift in WDs agrees with the predictions of stellar evolution models to within a few percent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oxygen abundance measurements are important for understanding stellar structure and evolution. Measured in Cepheids, they further provide clues on the metallicity gradient and chemo-dynamical evolution in the Galaxy. However, most of the abundance analyses of Cepheids to date have been based on one-dimensional (1D) hydrostatic model atmospheres. Here, we test the validity of this approach for the key oxygen abundance diagnostic, the O I 777 nm triplet lines. We carry out two-dimensional (2D) non-LTE radiative transfer calculations across two different 2D radiation hydrodynamics simulations of Cepheid atmospheres, having stellar parameters of Teff = 5600 K, solar chemical compositions, and log g = 1.5 and 2.0, corresponding to pulsation periods of 9 and 3 days, respectively. We find that the 2D non-LTE versus 1D LTE abundance differences range from −1.0 to −0.25 dex depending on pulsational phase. The 2D non-LTE versus 1D non-LTE abundance differences range from −0.2 to 0.8 dex. The abundance differences are smallest when the Cepheid atmospheres are closest to hydrostatic equilibrium, corresponding to phases of around 0.3–0.8, and we recommend these phases for observers deriving the oxygen abundance from O I 777 nm triplet with 1D hydrostatic models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The determination of stellar effective temperature (Teff) in F, G, and K stars using Hα profile fitting is a quite remarkable and powerful tool because it does not depend on reddening and is only slightly sensitive to other atmospheric parameters. Nevertheless, this technique is not frequently used because of the complex procedure needed to recover the profile of broad lines in echelle spectra. As a consequence, tests performed on different models have sometimes provided ambiguous results. Aims. The main aim of this work is to test the ability of the Hα profile fitting technique to derive Teff. We also aim to improve the applicability of this technique to echelle spectra and to test how well 1D + LTE models perform on a variety of F–K stars. We also apply the technique to HARPS spectra and test the reliability and the stability of the HARPS response over several years using the Sun. Methods. We have developed a normalization method for recovering undistorted Hα profiles and we have first applied it to spectra acquired with the single-order Coudé instrument (resolution R = 45 000) at do Pico dos Dias Observatory to avoid the problem of blaze correction. The continuum location around Hα is optimised using an iterative procedure, where the identification of minute telluric features is performed. A set of spectra was acquired with the MUSICOS echelle spectrograph (R  =  40 000) to independently validate the normalization method. The accuracy of the method and of the 1D + LTE model is determined using Coudé/HARPS/MUSICOS spectra of the Sun and Coudé-only spectra of a sample of ten Gaia Benchmark Stars with Teff determined from interferometric measurements. HARPS, Coudé, and MUSICOS spectra are used to determine Teff of 43 sample stars. Results. We find that a proper choice of spectral windows of fits plus the identification of telluric features allow for a very careful normalization of the spectra and produce reliable Hα profiles. We also find that the most used solar atlases cannot be used as templates for Hα temperature diagnostics without renormalization. The comparison with the Sun shows that Hα profiles from 1D + LTE models underestimate the solar Teff by 28 K. We find the same agreement between Hα and interferometry and between Hα and Infrared Flux Method: a shallow dependency on metallicity according to the relation Teff = TeffHα $T_{\mathrm{eff}} = T_{\mathrm{eff}}^{\textrm{H}\alpha}$ T eff = T eff H α − 159[Fe/H] + 28 K within the metallicity range − 0.70 to + 0.40 dex. The comparison with the Infrared Flux Method shows a scatter of 59 K dominated by photometric errors (52 K). In order to investigate the origin of this dependency, we analyzed spectra from 3D models and found that they produce hotter temperatures, and that their use largely improves the agreement with the interferometric and Infrared Flux Method measurements. Finally, we find HARPS spectra to be fully suitable for Hα profile temperature diagnostics; they are perfectly compatible with the Coudé spectra, and lead to the same Teff for the Sun as that found when analysing HARPS spectra over a timespan of more than 7 yr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the accuracy of spectroscopic radial velocities (RVs) by comparing spectroscopic and astrometric RVs for stars of the Hyades open cluster. We obtained High-Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) spectra for a large sample of Hyades stars and combined them with accurate astrometric RVs based on Hipparcos and Gaia data. After cleaning the sample from binaries, RV variables, and outliers, 71 stars remained. The distribution of the observed RV difference (between spectroscopic and astrometric) is skewed and depends on the star right ascension. This is consistent with the Hyades cluster rotating at 42.3 m s−1pc−1. The two Hyades giants in the sample show, as predicted by gravitational redshift (GR), a spectroscopic RV that is blue-shifted with respect to the dwarfs, and the empirical GR slope is of 626 ± 131 m s−1, in agreement with the theoretical prediction. The difference between spectroscopic and astrometric RVs is close to zero when considering the Gaia -based RVs corrected for cluster rotation. The mean difference is of −33 m s−1 and the median is of −16 m s−1, with a standard deviation of 347 m s−1 being close to the expected cluster velocity dispersion. We also determine a new value of the cluster centroid spectroscopic RV: 39.36 ± 0.26 km s−1. We finally discuss other phenomena that can influence the RV difference, such as cluster expansion, stellar rotation, stellar activity, general relativity, and Galactic potential. Clusters within the reach of current telescopes are expected to show differences of several hundreds m s−1, depending on their position in the Galaxy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Space observations by the CoRoT and Kepler missions have provided a wealth of high-quality seismic data for a large number of stars from the main sequence to the red giant phases. One main goal of these missions is to take advantage of the rich spectra of solar-like oscillations to perform precise determinations of stellar characteristic parameters. To make the best of such data, we need theoretical stellar models with a precise near-surface structure since a near-surface structure of a solar-like star has significant influence on solar-like oscillation frequencies. The mixing-length parameter is a key factor to determine the near-surface structure of stellar models. In current versions of the convection formulations used in stellar evolution codes, the mixing-length parameter is a free parameter that needs to be properly specified. Aims. We aim at determining appropriate values of the mixing-length parameter, α, to be used consistently with the adopted convection formulation when computing stellar evolution models across the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. This determination is based on 3D hydrodynamical simulation models. Methods. We calibrated α values by matching entropy profiles of 1D envelope models with those of hydrodynamical 3D models of solar-like stars produced by the CO5BOLD code. For such calibration, previous works concentrated on the classical mixing-length theory (MLT). We also analyzed full spectrum turbulence (FST) models. To construct the atmosphere in the 1D models, we used the Eddington gray T(τ) relation and that with the solar-calibrated Hopf-like function. Results. For both MLT and FST models with a mixing length l = αHp, calibrated α values increase with increasing surface gravity or decreasing effective temperature. For the FST models, we carried out an additional calibration using an α* value defined as l = rtop − r + α*Hp, top, where α* is found to increase with surface gravity and effective temperature. We provide tables of the calibrated α values across the Teff–log g plane for solar metallicity. By computing stellar evolution with varying α based on our 3D α calibration, we find that the change from solar α to varying α shifts evolutionary tracks particularly for the FST model. As for the correspondence to the 3D models, the solar Hopf-like function generally gives a photospheric-minimum entropy closer to a 3D model than the Eddington T(τ). The structure below the photosphere depends on the adopted convection model. However, we cannot obtain a definitive conclusion about which convection model gives the best correspondence to the 3D models. This is because each 1D physical quantity is related via an equation of state (EoS), but it is not the case for the averaged 3D quantities. Although the FST models with l = rtop − r + α*Hp, top are found to give the oscillation frequencies closest to the solar observed frequencies, their acoustic cavities are formed with compensatory effects between deviating density and temperature profiles near the top of the convective envelope. In future work, an appropriate treatment of the top part of the 1D convective envelope is necessary, for example, by considering turbulent pressure and overshooting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Extremely metal-poor stars are keys to understand the early evolution of our Galaxy. The ESO large programme TOPoS has been tailored to analyse a new set of metal-poor turn-off stars, whereas most of the previously known extremely metal-poor stars are giant stars. Aims. Sixty five turn-off stars (preselected from SDSS spectra) have been observed with the X-shooter spectrograph at the ESO VLT Unit Telescope 2, to derive accurate and detailed abundances of magnesium, silicon, calcium, iron, strontium and barium. Methods. We analysed medium-resolution spectra (R ≃ 10 000) obtained with the ESO X-shooter spectrograph and computed the abundances of several α and neutron-capture elements using standard one-dimensional local thermodynamic equilibrium (1D LTE) model atmospheres. Results. Our results confirms the super-solar [Mg/Fe] and [Ca/Fe] ratios in metal-poor turn-off stars as observed in metal-poor giant stars. We found a significant spread of the [α/Fe] ratios with several stars showing subsolar [Ca/Fe] ratios. We could measure the abundance of strontium in 12 stars of the sample, leading to abundance ratios [Sr/Fe] around the Solar value. We detected barium in two stars of the sample. One of the stars (SDSS J114424−004658) shows both very high [Ba/Fe] and [Sr/Fe] abundance ratios (>1 dex). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first grid of 3D simulations for the pure-helium atmospheres of DB white dwarfs. The simulations were computed with the co5bold radiation-hydrodynamics code and cover effective temperatures and surface gravities between 12 000 K ≲ T eff≲ 34 000 K and 7.5 ≤ log g (cgs units) ≤ 9.0, respectively. In this introductory work, synthetic spectra calculated from the 3D simulations are compared to appropriate 1D model spectra under a differential approach. This results in the derivation of 3D corrections for the spectroscopically derived atmospheric parameters of DB stars with respect to the 1D ML2/α = 1.25 mixing-length parametrization. No significant T effcorrections are found for the V777 Her instability strip region, and therefore no 3D revision is expected for the empirical blue and red edges of the strip. However, large log g corrections are found in the range 12 000 K < T eff< 23 000 K for all log g values covered by the 3D grid. These corrections indicate that 1D model atmospheres overpredict log g, reminiscent of the results found from 3D simulations of pure-hydrogen white dwarfs. The next step will be to compute 3D simulations with mixed helium and hydrogen atmospheres to comprehend the full implications for the stellar parameters of DB and DBA white dwarfs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We determined abundances of Mg and K in the atmospheres of 53 (Mg) and 75 (K) turn-off (TO) stars of the Galactic globular cluster 47 Tuc. The obtained abundances, together with those of Li, O, and Na that we had earlier determined for the same sample of stars, were used to search for possible relations between the abundances of K and other light elements, Li, O, Na, and Mg, as well as the connections between the chemical composition of TO stars and their kinematical properties. Methods. Abundances of Mg and K were determined using archival high resolution VLT FLAMES/GIRAFFE spectra, in combination with the one-dimensional (1D) non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (NLTE) spectral synthesis methodology. Spectral line profiles were computed with the MULTI code, using 1D hydrostatic ATLAS9 stellar model atmospheres. We also utilized three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamical CO5 BOLD and 1D hydrostatic LHD model atmospheres for computing 3D–1D LTE abundance corrections for the spectral lines of Mg and K, in order to assess the influence of convection on their formation in the atmospheres of TO stars. Results. The determined average abundance-to-iron ratios and their root mean square variations due to star-to-star abundance spreads were 〈[Mg/Fe]〉1D NLTE = 0.47 ± 0.12, and 〈[K/Fe]〉1D NLTE = 0.39 ± 0.09. Although the data suggest the possible existence of a weak correlation in the [K/Fe]–[Na/Fe] plane, its statistical significance is low. No statistically significant relations between the abundance of K and other light elements were detected. Also, we did not find any significant correlations or anti-correlations between the [Mg/Fe] and [K/Fe] ratios and projected distance from the cluster center. Similarly, no relations between the absolute radial velocities of individual stars and abundances of Mg and K in their atmospheres were detected. The 3D–1D abundance corrections were found to be small (≤0.1 dex) for the lines of Mg and K used in this study, thus indicating that the influence of convection on their formation is small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We studied the influence of convection on the spectral energy distributions (SEDs), photometric magnitudes, and colour indices of different types of stars across the H-R diagram. Methods. The 3D hydrodynamical CO5BOLD, averaged <3D>, and 1D hydrostatic LHD model atmospheres were used to compute SEDs of stars on the main sequence (MS), main sequence turn-off (TO), subgiant branch (SGB), and red giant branch (RGB), in each case at two different effective temperatures and two metallicities, [M/H] = 0.0 and -2.0. Using the obtained SEDs, we calculated photometric magnitudes and colour indices in the broad-band Johnson-Cousins UBVRI and 2MASS JHKs, and the medium-band Strömgren uvby photometric systems. Results. The 3D-1D differences in photometric magnitudes and colour indices are small in both photometric systems and typically do not exceed ±0.03 mag. Only in the case of the coolest giants located on the upper RGB are the differences in the U and u bands able reach ≈ -0.2 mag at [M/H] = 0.0 and ≈ -0.1 mag at [M/H] = -2.0. Generally, the 3D-1D differences are largest in the blue-UV part of the spectrum and decrease towards longer wavelengths. They are also sensitive to the effective temperature and are significantly smaller in hotter stars. Metallicity also plays a role and leads to slightly larger 3D-1D differences at [M/H] = 0.0. All these patterns are caused by a complex interplay between the radiation field, opacities, and horizontal temperature fluctuations that occur due to convective motions in stellar atmospheres. Although small, the 3D-1D differences in the magnitudes and colour indices are nevertheless comparable to or larger than typical photometric uncertainties and may therefore cause non-negligible systematic differences in the estimated effective temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The atmospheres of cool stars are temporally and spatially inhomogeneous due to the effects of convection. The influence of this inhomogeneity, referred to as granulation, on colours has never been investigated over a large range of effective temperatures and gravities. Aims. We aim to study, in a quantitative way, the impact of granulation on colours. Methods. We use the CIFIST (Cosmological Impact of the FIrst Stars) grid of CO5BOLD (COnservative COde for the COmputation of COmpressible COnvection in a BOx of L Dimensions, L = 2, 3) hydrodynamical models to compute emerging fluxes. These in turn are used to compute theoretical colours in the UBVRI, 2MASS, HIPPARCOS, Gaia and SDSS systems. Every CO5BOLD model has a corresponding one dimensional (1D) plane-parallel LHD (Lagrangian HydroDynamics) model computed for the same atmospheric parameters, which we used to define a "3D correction" that can be applied to colours computed from fluxes computed from any 1D model atmosphere code. As an example, we illustrate these corrections applied to colours computed from ATLAS models. Results. The 3D corrections on colours are generally small, of the order of a few hundredths of a magnitude, yet they are far from negligible. We find that ignoring granulation effects can lead to underestimation of Teff by up to 200 K and overestimation of gravity by up to 0.5 dex, when using colours as diagnostics. We have identified a major shortcoming in how scattering is treated in the current version of the CIFIST grid, which could lead to offsets of the order 0.01 mag, especially for colours involving blue and UV bands. We have investigated the Gaia and HIPPARCOS photometric systems and found that the (G - Hp), (BP - RP) diagram is immune to the effects of granulation. In addition, we point to the potential of the RVS photometry as a metallicity diagnostic. Conclusions. Our investigation shows that the effects of granulation should not be neglected if one wants to use colours as diagnostics of the stellar parameters of F, G, K stars. A limitation is that scattering is treated as true absorption in our current computations, thus our 3D corrections are likely an upper limit to the true effect. We are already computing the next generation of the CIFIST grid, using an approximate treatment of scattering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Standard spectroscopic analyses of variable stars are based on hydrostatic 1D model atmospheres. This quasi-static approach has not been theoretically validated. Aims. We aim at investigating the validity of the quasi-static approximation for Cepheid variables. We focus on the spectroscopic determination of the effective temperature Teff, surface gravity log g, microturbulent velocity ξt, and a generic metal abundance log A; here taken as iron. Methods. We calculated a grid of 1D hydrostatic plane-parallel models covering the ranges in effective temperature and gravity that are encountered during the evolution of a 2D time-dependent envelope model of a Cepheid computed with the radiation-hydrodynamics code CO5BOLD. We performed 1D spectral syntheses for artificial iron lines in local thermodynamic equilibrium by varying the microturbulent velocity and abundance. We fit the resulting equivalent widths to corresponding values obtained from our dynamical model for 150 instances in time, covering six pulsational cycles. In addition, we considered 99 instances during the initial non-pulsating stage of the temporal evolution of the 2D model. In the most general case, we treated Teff, log g, ξt, and log A as free parameters and in two more limited cases, we fixed Teff and log g by independent constraints.We argue analytically that our approach of fitting equivalent widths is closely related to current standard procedures focusing on line-by-line abundances. Results. For the four-parametric case, the stellar parameters are typically underestimated and exhibit a bias in the iron abundance of ≈-0.2 dex. To avoid biases of this type, it is favorable to restrict the spectroscopic analysis to photometric phases ϕ ph ≈ 0:3 : : : 0:65 using additional information to fix the effective temperature and surface gravity. Conclusions. Hydrostatic 1D model atmospheres can provide unbiased estimates of stellar parameters and abundances of Cepheid variables for particular phases of their pulsations.We identified convective inhomogeneities as the main driver behind potential biases. To obtain a complete view on the effects when determining stellar parameters with 1D models, multidimensional Cepheid atmosphere models are necessary for variables of longer period than investigated here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The space-borne missions CoRoT and Kepler have provided a wealth of highly accurate data. However, our inability to properly model the upper-most region of solar-like stars prevents us from making the best of these observations. This problem is called "surface effect" and a key ingredient to solve it is turbulent pressure for the computation of both the equilibrium models and the oscillations. While 3D hydrodynamic simulations help to include properly the turbulent pressure in the equilibrium models, the way this surface effect is included in the computation of stellar oscillations is still subject to uncertainties. Aims. We aim at determining how to properly include the effect of turbulent pressure and its Lagrangian perturbation in the adiabatic computation of the oscillations. We also discuss the validity of the gas-gamma model and reduced gamma model approximations, which have been used to compute adiabatic oscillations of equilibrium models including turbulent pressure. Methods. We use a patched model of the Sun with an inner part constructed by a 1D stellar evolution code (CESTAM) and an outer part by the 3D hydrodynamical code (CO5BOLD). Then, the adiabatic oscillations are computed using the ADIPLS code for the gas-gamma and reduced gamma model approximations and with the MAD code imposing the adiabatic condition on an existing time-dependent convection formalism. Finally, all those results are compared to the observed solar frequencies. Results. We show that the computation of the oscillations using the time-dependent convection formalism in the adiabatic limit improves significantly the agreement with the observed frequencies compared to the gas-gamma and reduced gamma model approximations. Of the components of the perturbation of the turbulent pressure, the perturbation of the density and advection term is found to contribute most to the frequency shift. Conclusions. The turbulent pressure is certainly the dominant factor responsible for the surface effects. Its inclusion into the equilibrium models is thus necessary but not sufficient. Indeed, the perturbation of the turbulent pressure must be properly taken into account for computing adiabatic oscillation frequencies. We propose a formalism to evaluate the frequency shift due to the inclusion of the term with the turbulent pressure perturbation in the variational principle in order to extrapolate our result to other stars at various evolutionary stages. Although this work is limited to adiabatic oscillations and the inclusion of the turbulent pressure, future works will have to account for the nonadiabatic effect and convective backwarming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrodynamical, i.e. multi-dimensional and time-dependent, model atmospheres of late-type stars have reached a high level of realism. They are commonly applied in high-fidelity work on stellar abundances but also allow the study of processes that are not modelled in standard, one-dimensional hydrostatic model atmospheres. Here, we discuss two observational aspects that emerge from such processes, the photometric granulation background and the spectroscopic microturbulence. We use CO5BOLD hydrodynamical model atmospheres to characterize the total granular brightness fluctuations and characteristic time scale for FGK stars. Emphasis is put on the diagnostic potential of the granulation background for constraining the fundamental atmospheric parameters. We find a clear metallicity dependence of the granulation background. The comparison between the model predictions and available observational constraints at solar metallicity shows significant differences, that need further clarification. Concerning microturbulence, we report on the derivation of a theoretical calibration based on CO5BOLD models, which shows good correspondence with the measurements for stars in the Hyades. We emphasize the importance of a consistent procedure when determining the microturbulence, and point to limitations of the commonly applied description of microturbulence in hydrostatic model atmospheres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) is a new powerful tool for observing the Sun at high spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution. These capabilities can address a broad range of fundamental scientific questions in solar physics. The radiation observed by ALMA originates mostly from the chromosphere-a complex and dynamic region between the photosphere and corona, which plays a crucial role in the transport of energy and matter and, ultimately, the heating of the outer layers of the solar atmosphere. Based on first solar test observations, strategies for regular solar campaigns are currently being developed. State-of-the-art numerical simulations of the solar atmosphere and modeling of instrumental effects can help constrain and optimize future observing modes for ALMA. Here we present a short technical description of ALMA and an overview of past efforts and future possibilities for solar observations at submillimeter and millimeter wavelengths. In addition, selected numerical simulations and observations at other wavelengths demonstrate ALMA's scientific potential for studying the Sun for a large range of science cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The solar photospheric oxygen abundance is still widely debated. Adopting the solar chemical composition based on the "low" oxygen abundance, as determined with the use of three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamical model atmospheres, results in a well-known mismatch between theoretical solar models and helioseismic measurements that is so far unresolved. Aims. We carry out an independent redetermination of the solar oxygen abundance by investigating the center-to-limb variation of the Oi IR triplet lines at 777 nm in different sets of spectra. Methods. The high-resolution and high signal-to-noise solar center-to-limb spectra are analyzed with the help of detailed synthetic line profiles based on 3D hydrodynamical CO5BOLD model atmospheres and 3D non-LTE line formation calculations with NLTE3D. The idea is to exploit the information contained in the observations at different limb angles to simultaneously derive the oxygen abundance, A(O), and the scaling factor SH that describes the cross-sections for inelastic collisions with neutral hydrogen relative to the classical Drawin formula. Using the same codes and methods, we compare our 3D results with those obtained from the semi-empirical Holweger-Müller model atmosphere as well as from different one-dimensional (1D) reference models. Results. With the CO5BOLD 3D solar model, the best fit of the center-to-limb variation of the triplet lines is obtained when the collisions by neutral hydrogen atoms are assumed to be efficient, i.e., when the scaling factor SH is between 1.2 and 1.8, depending on the choice of the observed spectrum and the triplet component used in the analysis. The line profile fits achieved with standard 1D model atmospheres (with fixed microturbulence, independent of disk position μ) are clearly of inferior quality compared to the 3D case, and give the best match to the observations when ignoring collisions with neutral hydrogen (SH = 0). The results derived with the Holweger-Müller model are intermediate between 3D and standard 1D. Conclusions. The analysis of various observations of the triplet lines with different methods yields oxygen abundance values (on a logarithmic scale where A(H) = 12) that fall in the range 8.74

Keywords: stars: Population II; stars: abundances; Galaxy: abundances; Galaxy: halo; errata, addenda EN stars: Population II stars: abundances Galaxy: abundances Galaxy: halo errata, addenda 1 1 1 10/03/22 20220929 NES 220929 We realised that there was a mistake in the code that computed parameters for the photometric data sample. Furthermore, for 301 763 stars, the interpolation arrived at the edge in metallicity of the synthetic grid (+0.5) and the program was not extrapolating. Stars: Population II, stars: abundances, Galaxy: abundances, Galaxy: halo, errata, addenda. [Extracted from the article]

From stellar spectra, a variety of physical properties of stars can be derived. In particular, the chemical composition of stellar atmospheres can be inferred from absorption line analyses. These provide key information on large scales, such as the formation of our Galaxy, down to the small-scale nucleosynthesis processes that take place in stars and supernovae. By extending the observed wavelength range toward bluer wavelengths, we optimize such studies to also include critical absorption lines in metal-poor stars, and allow for studies of heavy elements ( Z ≥ 38) whose formation processes remain poorly constrained. In this context, spectrographs optimized for observing blue wavelength ranges are essential, since many absorption lines at redder wavelengths are too weak to be detected in metal-poor stars. This means that some elements cannot be studied in the visual-redder regions, and important scientific tracers and science cases are lost. The present era of large public surveys will target millions of stars. It is therefore important that the next generation of spectrographs are designed such that they cover a wide wavelength range and can observe a large number of stars simultaneously. Only then, we can gain the full information from stellar spectra, from both metal-poor to metal-rich ones, that will allow us to understand the aforementioned formation scenarios in greater detail. Here we describe the requirements driving the design of the forthcoming survey instrument 4MOST, a multi-object spectrograph commissioned for the ESO VISTA 4 m-telescope. While 4MOST is also intended for studies of active galactic nuclei, baryonic acoustic oscillations, weak lensing, cosmological constants, supernovae and other transients, we focus here on high-density, wide-area survey of stars and the science that can be achieved with high-resolution stellar spectroscopy. Scientific and technical requirements that governed the design are described along with a thorough line blending analysis. For the high-resolution spectrograph, we find that a sampling of ≥2.5 (pixels per resolving element), spectral resolution of 18000 or higher, and a wavelength range covering 393-436 nm, is the most well-balanced solution for the instrument. A spectrograph with these characteristics will enable accurate abundance analysis (±0.1 dex) in the blue and allow us to confront the outlined scientific questions. (© 2015 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The solar photospheric abundance of oxygen is still a matter of debate. For about ten years some determinations have favoured a low oxygen abundance which is at variance with the value inferred by helioseismology. Among the oxygen abundance indicators, the forbidden line at 630 nm has often been considered the most reliable even though it is blended with a Ni I line. In Papers I and II of this series we reported a discrepancy in the oxygen abundance derived from the 630 nm and the subordinate [OI] line at 636 nm in dwarf stars, including the Sun. Aims. Here we analyse several, in part new, solar observations of the centre-to-limb variation of the spectral region including the blend at 630 nm in order to separate the individual contributions of oxygen and nickel. Methods. We analyse intensity spectra observed at different limb angles in comparison with line formation computations performed on a CO5BOLD 3D hydrodynamical simulation of the solar atmosphere. Results. The oxygen abundances obtained from the forbidden line at different limb angles are inconsistent if the commonly adopted nickel abundance of 6.25 is assumed in our local thermodynamic equilibrium computations. With a slightly lower nickel abundance, A(Ni) ≈ 6.1, we obtain consistent fits indicating an oxygen abundance of A(O) = 8.73 ± 0.05. At this value the discrepancy with the subordinate oxygen line remains. Conclusions. The derived value of the oxygen abundance supports the notion of a rather low oxygen abundance in the solar photosphere. However, it is disconcerting that the forbidden oxygen lines at 630 and 636 nm give noticeably different results, and that the nickel abundance derived here from the 630 nm blend is lower than expected from other nickel lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. In the course of the Turn Off Primordial Stars (TOPoS) survey, aimed at discovering the lowest metallicity stars, we have found several carbon-enhanced metal-poor (CEMP) stars. These stars are very common among the stars of extremely low metallicity and provide important clues to the star formation processes. We here present our analysis of six CEMP stars. Aims. We want to provide the most complete chemical inventory for these six stars in order to constrain the nucleosynthesis processes responsible for the abundance patterns. Methods. We analyse both X-Shooter and UVES spectra acquired at the VLT. We used a traditional abundance analysis based on OSMARCS 1D local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) model atmospheres and the turbospectrum line formation code. Results. Calcium and carbon are the only elements that can be measured in all six stars. The range is -5.0 ≤ [Ca/H] < -2.1 and 7.12 ≤ A(C) ≤ 8.65. For star SDSS J1742+2531 we were able to detect three Fe i lines from which we deduced [Fe/H] = -4.80, from four Ca II lines we derived [Ca/H] = -4.56, and from synthesis of the G-band we derived A(C) = 7.26. For SDSS J1035+0641 we were not able to detect any iron lines, yet we could place a robust (3σ) upper limit of [Fe/H] < -5.0 and measure the Ca abundance, with [Ca/H] = -5.0, and carbon, A(C) = 6.90, suggesting that this star could be even more metal-poor than SDSS J1742+2531. This makes these two stars the seventh and eighth stars known so far with [Fe/H] < -4.5, usually termed ultra-iron-poor (UIP) stars. No lithium is detected in the spectrum of SDSS J1742+2531 or SDSS J1035+0641, which implies a robust upper limit of A(Li) < 1.8 for both stars. Conclusions. Our measured carbon abundances confirm the bimodal distribution of carbon in CEMP stars, identifying a high-carbon band and a low-carbon band. We propose an interpretation of this bimodality according to which the stars on the high-carbon band are the result of mass transfer from an AGB companion, while the stars on the low-carbon band are genuine fossil records of a gas cloud that has also been enriched by a faint supernova (SN) providing carbon and the lighter elements. The abundance pattern of the UIP stars shows a large star-to-star scatter in the [X/Ca] ratios for all elements up to aluminium (up to 1 dex), but this scatter drops for heavier elements and is at most of the order of a factor of two. We propose that this can be explained if these stars are formed from gas that has been chemically enriched by several SNe, that produce the roughly constant [X/Ca] ratios for the heavier elements, and in some cases the gas has also been polluted by the ejecta of a faint SN that contributes the lighter elements in variable amounts. The absence of lithium in four of the five known unevolved UIP stars can be explained by a dominant role of fragmentation in the formation of these stars. This would result either in a destruction of lithium in the pre-main-sequence phase, through rotational mixing or to a lack of late accretion from a reservoir of fresh gas. The phenomenon should have varying degrees of efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Heavy-elements, i.e. those beyond the iron peak, mostly form via two neutron capture processes: the slow (s-) and the rapid (r-) process. Metal-poor stars should contain fewer isotopes that form via the s-process, according to currently accepted theory. It has been shown in several investigations that theory and observation do not agree well, raising questions on the validity of either the methodology or the theory. Aims. We analyse the metal-poor star HD140283, for which we have a high quality spectrum. We test whether a three-dimensional (3D) local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) stellar atmosphere and spectrum synthesis code permits a more reliable analysis of the iron abundance and barium isotope ratio than a one-dimensional (1D) LTE analysis. Methods. Using 3D hydrodynamical model atmospheres, we examine 91 iron lines of varying strength and formation depth. This provides us with the star's rotational speed. With this, we model the barium isotope ratio by exploiting the hyperfine structure of the singly ionised 4554Å resonance line, and study the impact of the uncertainties in the stellar parameters. Results. The star's rotational speed was found to be 1:65 ± 0:05 km s-1. Barium isotopes under the 3D paradigm show a dominant r-process signature as 77 ± 6 ± 17% ( fodd = 0:38 ± 0:02 ± 0:06) of barium isotopes form via the r-process, where errors represent the assigned random and systematic errors, respectively. We find that 3D LTE fits reproduce iron line profiles better than those in 1D, but do not provide a unique abundance (within the uncertainties). However, we demonstrate that the isotopic ratio is robust against this shortcoming. Conclusions. Our barium isotope result agrees well with currently accepted theory regarding the formation of the heavy-elements during the early Galaxy. The improved fit to the asymmetric iron line profiles suggests that the current state of 3D LTE modelling provides excellent simulations of fluid flows. However, the abundances they provide are not yet self-consistent. This may improve with non-LTE considerations and higher resolution models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The study of chemical abundance patterns in globular clusters is of key importance to constrain the different candidates for intra-cluster pollution of light elements. Aims: We aim at deriving accurate abundances for a large range of elements in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae (NGC 104) to add new constraints to the pollution scenarios for this particular cluster, expanding the range of previously derived element abundances. Methods: Using tailored 1D LTE atmospheric models together with a combination of equivalent width measurements, LTE, and NLTE synthesis we derive stellar parameters and element abundances from high-resolution, high signal-to-noise spectra of 13 red giant stars near the tip of the RGB. Results: We derive abundances of a total 27 elements (O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Mo, Ru, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Eu, Dy). Departures from LTE were taken into account for Na, Al and Ba. We find a mean [Fe/H] = -0.78±0.07 and [α/Fe]=0.34±0.03 in good agreement with previous studies. The remaining elements show good agreement with the literature, but the inclusion of NLTE for Al has a significant impact on the behaviour of this key element. Conclusions: We confirm the presence of an Na-O anti-correlation in 47 Tucanae found by several other works. Our NLTE analysis of Al shifts the [Al/Fe] to lower values, indicating that this may be overestimated in earlier works. No evidence for an intrinsic variation is found in any of the remaining elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The abundances of α-elements are a powerful diagnostic of the star formation history and chemical evolution of a galaxy. Sulphur, being moderately volatile, can be reliably measured in the interstellar medium (ISM) of damped Ly-α galaxies and extragalactic Hii regions. Measurements in stars of different metallicity in our Galaxy can then be readily compared to the abundances in external galaxies. Such a comparison is not possible for Si or Ca that suffer depletion onto dust in the ISM. Furthermore, studying sulphur is interesting because it probes nucleosynthetic conditions that are very different from those of O or Mg. In this context measurements in star clusters are a reliable tracers of the Galactic evolution of sulphur. Aims. The aim of this paper is to determine sulphur abundances in several Galactic clusters that span a metallicity range −1.5 < [Fe/H] < 0.0. Methods. We use a standard abundance analysis, based on 1D model atmospheres in local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE) and literature corrections for non-LTE (NLTE), as well as 3D corrections based on hydrodynamical model atmospheres, to derive sulphur abundances in a sample of stars in the globular cluster M4, and the open clusters Trumpler 5, NGC2477, and NGC 5822. Results. We find A (S)NLTE = 6.11 ± 0.04 for M4, A (S)NLTE = 7.17 ± 0.02 for NGC2477, and A (S)NLTE = 7.13 ± 0.06 for NGC5822. For the only star studied in Trumpler 5 we find A(S)NLTE = 6.43 ± 0.03 and A(S)LTE = 6.94 ± 0.05. Conclusions. Our measurements show that, by and large, the S abundances in Galactic clusters trace reliably those in field stars. The only possible exception is Trumpler 5, for which the NLTE sulphur abundance implies an [S/Fe] ratio lower by roughly 0.4 dex than observed in field stars of comparable metallicity, even though its LTE sulphur abundance is in line with abundances of field stars. Moreover the LTE sulphur abundance is consistent only with the abundance of another α-element, Mg, in the same star, while the low NLTE value is consistent with Si and Ca. We believe that further investigation of departures from LTE is necessary, as well as observation of other S i lines in this star and in other stars of the same cluster, before one can conclude that the sulphur abundance in Trumpler 5 is indeed 0.4 dex lower than in field stars of comparable metallicity. The S abundances in our sample of stars in clusters imply that the clusters are chemically homogeneous for S within 0.05 dex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The cluster 47 Tuc is among the most metal-rich Galactic globular clusters and its metallicity is similar to that of metal-poor disc stars and open clusters. Like other globular clusters, it displays variations in the abundances of elements lighter than Si, which is generally interpreted as evidence of the presence of multiple stellar populations. Aims. We aim to determine abundances of Li, O, and Na in a sample of of 110 turn-off (TO) stars, in order to study the evolution of light elements in this cluster and to put our results in perspective with observations of other globular and open clusters, as well as with field stars. Methods. We use medium resolution spectra obtained with the GIRAFFE spectrograph at the ESO 8.2m Kueyen VLT telescope and use state of the art 1D model atmospheres and NLTE line transfer to determine the abundances. We also employ CO5BOLD hydrodynamical simulations to assess the impact of stellar granulation on the line formation and inferred abundances. Results. Our results confirm the existence of Na-O abundance anti-correlation and hint towards a possible Li-O anti-correlation in the TO stars of 47 Tuc. At the same time, we find no convincing evidence supporting the existence of Li-Na correlation. The obtained 3D NLTE mean lithium abundance in a sample of 94 TO stars where Li lines were detected reliably, 〈A(Li)3D NLTE〉 = 1.78±0.18 dex, appears to be significantly lower than what is observed in other globular clusters. At the same time, star-to-star spread in Li abundance is also larger than seen in other clusters. The highest Li abundance observed in 47 Tuc is about 0.1 dex lower than the lowest Li abundance observed among the un-depleted stars of the metal-poor open cluster NGC2243. Conclusions. The correlations/anti-correlations among light element abundances confirm that chemical enrichment history of 47 Tuc was similar to that of other globular clusters, despite the higher metallicity of 47 Tuc. The lithium abundances in 47 Tuc, when put into context with observations in other clusters and field stars, suggest that stars that are more metal-rich than [Fe/H] ∼ −1.0 experience significant lithium depletion during their lifetime on the main sequence, while the more metal-poor stars do not. Rather strikingly, our results suggest that initial lithium abundance with which the star was created may only depend on its age (the younger the star, the higher its Li content) and not on its metallicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The measurement of isotopic ratios provides a privileged insight both into nucleosynthesis and into the mechanisms operating in stellar envelopes, such as gravitational settling. In this article, we give a few examples of how isotopic ratios can be determined from high-resolution, high-quality stellar spectra. We consider examples of the lightest elements, H and He, for which the isotopic shifts are very large and easily measurable, and examples of heavier elements for which the determination of isotopic ratios is more difficult. The presence of 6Li in the stellar atmospheres causes a subtle extra depression in the red wing of the 7Li 670.7 nm doublet which can only be detected in spectra of the highest quality. But even with the best spectra, the derived 6Li abundance can only be as good as the synthetic spectra used for their interpretation. It is now known that 3D non-LTE modelling of the lithium spectral line profiles is necessary to account properly for the intrinsic line asymmetry, which is produced by convective flows in the atmospheres of cool stars, and can mimic the presence of 6Li. We also discuss briefly the case of the carbon isotopic ratio in metal-poor stars, and provide a new determination of the nickel isotopic ratios in the solar atmosphere. (© 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The metal-weak tail of the metallicity distribution function (MDF) of the Galactic Halo stars contains crucial information on the formation mode of the first generation of stars. To determine this observationally, it is necessary to observe large numbers of extremely metal-poor stars. Aims. We present here the Turn-Off Primordial Stars survey (TOPoS) that is conducted as an ESO Large Programme at the VLT. This project has four main goals: (i) to understand the formation of low-mass stars in a low-metallicity gas: determine the metal-weak tail of the halo MDF below [M/H] = -3.5; in particular, we aim at determining the critical metallicity, that is the lowest metallicity sufficient for the formation of low-mass stars; (ii) to determine in extremely metal-poor stars the relative abundances of the elements that are the signature of the massive first stars; (iii) to determine the trend of the lithium abundance at the time when the Galaxy formed; and (iv) to derive the fraction of C-enhanced extremely metal-poor stars with respect to normal extremely metal-poor stars. The large number of stars observed in the SDSS provides a good sample of candidate stars at extremely low metallicity. Methods. Candidates with turn-off colours down to magnitude g = 20 were selected from the low-resolution spectra of SDSS by means of an automated procedure. X-Shooter has the potential of performing the necessary follow-up spectroscopy, providing accurate metallicities and abundance ratios for several key elements for these stars. Results. We present here the stellar parameters of the first set of stars. The nineteen stars range in iron abundance between -4.1 and -2.9 dex relative to the Sun. Two stars have a high radial velocity and, according to our estimate of their kinematics, appear to be marginally bound to the Galaxy and are possibly accreted from another galaxy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The extremely metal-poor stars are the direct descendants of the first generation stars. They carry the chemical signature of the pristine Universe at the time they formed, shortly after the Big Bang. Aims. We aim to derive information about extremely metal-poor stars from their observed spectra. Methods. Four extremely metal-poor stars were selected from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and observed during the guaranteed observing time of X-shooter. The X-shooter spectra were analysed using an automatic code, MyGIsFOS, which is based on a traditional analysis method. It makes use of a synthetic grid computed from one-dimensional, plane-parallel, hydrostatic model atmospheres. Results. The low metallicity derived from the SDSS spectra is confirmed here. Two kinds of stars are found. Two stars are confirmed to be extremely metal-poor, with no evidence of any enhancement in carbon. The two other stars are strongly enhanced in carbon. We could not derive iron abundance for one of them, while [Ca/H] is below -4.5. Two of the stars are members of the rare population of extremely metal-poor stars low in alpha elements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first grid of mean three-dimensional (3D) spectra for pure-hydrogen (DA) white dwarfs based on 3D model atmospheres. We use CO5BOLD radiation-hydrodynamics 3D simulations instead of the mixing-length theory for the treatment of convection. The simulations cover the effective temperature range of 6000 < Teff (K) < 15 000 and the surface gravity range of 7 < logg < 9 where the large majority of DAs with a convective atmosphere are located. We rely on horizontally averaged 3D structures (over constant Rosseland optical depth) to compute (3D) spectra. It is demonstrated that our (3D) spectra can be smoothly connected to their 1D counterparts at higher and lower Teff where the 3D effects are small. Analytical functions are provided in order to convert spectroscopically determined 1D effective temperatures and surface gravities to 3D atmospheric parameters. We apply our improved models to well studied spectroscopic data sets from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the White Dwarf Catalog. We confirm that the so-called high-log g problem is not present when employing (3D) spectra and that the issue was caused by inaccuracies in the 1D mixing-length approach. The white dwarfs with a radiative and a convective atmosphere have derived mean masses that are the same within ∼0.01 M☉, in much better agreement with our understanding of stellar evolution. Furthermore, the 3D atmospheric parameters are in better agreement with independent Teff and log g values from photometric and parallax measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We utilize state-of-the-art three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamical and classical 1D stellar model atmospheres to study the influence of convection on the formation properties of various atomic and molecular spectral lines in the atmospheres of four red giant stars, located close to the base of the red giant branch, RGB (Teff ≈ 5000 K, log g = 2.5), and characterized by four different metallicities, [M/H] = 0.0, -1.0, -2.0, -3.0. Methods. The role of convection in the spectral line formation is assessed with the aid of abundance corrections, i.e., the differences in abundances predicted for a given equivalent width of a particular spectral line with the 3D and 1D model atmospheres. The 3D hydrodynamical and classical 1D model atmospheres used in this study were calculated with the CO5BOLD and 1D LHD codes, respectively. Identical atmospheric parameters, chemical composition, equation of state, and opacities were used with both codes, therefore allowing a strictly differential analysis of the line formation properties in the 3D and 1D models. Results. We find that for lines of certain neutral atoms, such as Mg i, Ti i, Fei, and Ni i, the abundance corrections strongly depend both on the metallicity of a given model atmosphere and the line excitation potential, ?. While abundance corrections for all lines of both neutral and ionized elements tend to be small at solar metallicity (⩽±0.1 dex), for lines of neutral elements with low ionization potential and low-to-intermediate ? they quickly increase with decreasing metallicity, reaching in their extremes -0.6 to -0.8dex. In all such cases the large abundance corrections are due to horizontal temperature fluctuations in the 3D hydrodynamical models. Lines of neutral elements with higher ionization potentials (Eion ≳ 10 eV) generally behave very similarly to lines of ionized elements characterized by low ionization potentials (Eion ≲ 6 eV). In the latter case, the abundance corrections are small (generally, ⩽±0.1dex) and are caused by approximately equal contributions from the horizontal temperature fluctuations and differences between the temperature profiles in the 3D and 1D model atmospheres. Abundance corrections of molecular lines are very sensitive to the metallicity of the underlying model atmosphere and may be larger (in absolute value) than ∼-0.5dex at [M/H] = -3.0 (∼-1.5 dex in the case of CO). At fixed metallicity and excitation potential, the abundance corrections show little variation within the wavelength range studied here, 400-1600 nm.We also find that an approximate treatment of scattering in the 3D model calculations (i.e., ignoring the scattering opacity in the outer, optically thin, atmosphere) leads to abundance corrections that are altered by less than ∼0.1 dex, both for atomic and molecular (CO) lines, with respect to the model where scattering is treated as true absorption throughout the entire atmosphere, with the largest differences for the resonance and low-excitation lines Aims. We utilize state-of-the-art three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamical and classical 1D stellar model atmospheres to study the influence of convection on the formation properties of various atomic and molecular spectral lines in the atmospheres of four red giant stars, located close to the base of the red giant branch, RGB (Teff ≈ 5000 K, log g = 2.5), and characterized by four different metallicities, [M/H] = 0.0, -1.0, -2.0, -3.0. Methods. The role of convection in the spectral line formation is assessed with the aid of abundance corrections, i.e., the differences in abundances predicted for a given equivalent width of a particular spectral line with the 3D and 1D model atmospheres. The 3D hydrodynamical and classical 1D model atmospheres used in this study were calculated with the CO5BOLD and 1D LHD codes, respectively. Identical atmospheric parameters, chemical composition, equation of state, and opacities were used with both codes, therefore allowing a strictly differential analysis of the line formation properties in the 3D and 1D models. Results. We find that for lines of certain neutral atoms, such as Mg i, Ti i, Fei, and Ni i, the abundance corrections strongly depend both on the metallicity of a given model atmosphere and the line excitation potential, ?. While abundance corrections for all lines of both neutral and ionized elements tend to be small at solar metallicity (⩽±0.1 dex), for lines of neutral elements with low ionization potential and low-to-intermediate ? they quickly increase with decreasing metallicity, reaching in their extremes -0.6 to -0.8dex. In all such cases the large abundance corrections are due to horizontal temperature fluctuations in the 3D hydrodynamical models. Lines of neutral elements with higher ionization potentials (Eion ≳ 10 eV) generally behave very similarly to lines of ionized elements characterized by low ionization potentials (Eion ≲ 6 eV). In the latter case, the abundance corrections are small (generally, ⩽±0.1dex) and are caused by approximately equal contributions from the horizontal temperature fluctuations and differences between the temperature profiles in the 3D and 1D model atmospheres. Abundance corrections of molecular lines are very sensitive to the metallicity of the underlying model atmosphere and may be larger (in absolute value) than ∼-0.5dex at [M/H] = -3.0 (∼-1.5 dex in the case of CO). At fixed metallicity and excitation potential, the abundance corrections show little variation within the wavelength range studied here, 400-1600 nm.We also find that an approximate treatment of scattering in the 3D model calculations (i.e., ignoring the scattering opacity in the outer, optically thin, atmosphere) leads to abundance corrections that are altered by less than ∼0.1 dex, both for atomic and molecular (CO) lines, with respect to the model where scattering is treated as true absorption throughout the entire atmosphere, with the largest differences for the resonance and low-excitation lines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Solar granulation has been known for a long time to be a surface manifestation of convection. The space-borne missions CoRoT and Kepler enable us to observe the signature of this phenomena in disk-integrated intensity on a large number of stars. Aims. The space-based photometric measurements show that the global brightness fluctuations and the lifetime associated with granulation obeys characteristic scaling relations. We thus aimed at providing simple theoretical modeling to reproduce these scaling relations, and subsequently at inferring the physical properties of granulation across the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Methods. We developed a simple 1D theoretical model. The input parameters were extracted from 3D hydrodynamical models of the surface layers of stars, and the free parameters involved in the model were calibrated with solar observations. Two different prescriptions for representing the Fourier transform of the time-correlation of the eddy velocity were compared: a Lorentzian and an exponential form. Finally, we compared our theoretical prediction with 3D radiative hydrodynamical (RHD) numerical modeling of stellar granulation (hereafter ab initio approach). Results. Provided that the free parameters are appropriately adjusted, our theoretical model reproduces the observed solar granulation spectrum quite satisfactorily; the best agreement is obtained for an exponential form. Furthermore, our model results in granulation spectra that agree well with the ab initio approach using two 3D RHD models that are representative of the surface layers of an F-dwarf and a red-giant star. Conclusions. We have developed a theoretical model that satisfactory reproduces the solar granulation spectrum and gives results consistent with the ab initio approach. The model is used in a companion paper as theoretical framework for interpretating the observed scaling relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. A large set of stars observed by CoRoT and Kepler shows clear evidence for the presence of a stellar background, which is interpreted to arise from surface convection, i.e., granulation. These observations show that the characteristic time-scale (teff) and the root-mean-square (rms) brightness fluctuations (σ) associated with the granulation scale as a function of the peak frequency (vmax) of the solar-like oscillations. Aims. We aim at providing a theoretical background to the observed scaling relations based on a model developed in Paper I. Methods. We computed for each 3D model the theoretical power density spectrum (PDS) associated with the granulation as seen in disk-integrated intensity on the basis of the theoretical model published in Paper I. For each PDS we derived the associated characteristic time (teff) and the rms brightness fluctuations (σ) and compared these theoretical values with the theoretical scaling relations derived from the theoretical model and the measurements made on a large set of Kepler targets. Results. We derive theoretical scaling relations for teff and σ, which show the same dependence on vmax as the observed scaling relations. In addition, we show that these quantities also scale as a function of the turbulent Mach number (Ma) estimated at the photosphere. The theoretical scaling relations for teff and σ match the observations well on a global scale. Quantitatively, the remaining discrepancies with the observations are found to be much smaller than previous theoretical calculations made for red giants. Conclusions. Our modelling provides additional theoretical support for the observed variations of σ and teff with vmax. It also highlights the important role of Ma in controlling the properties of the stellar granulation. However, the observations made with Kepler on a wide variety of stars cannot confirm the dependence of our scaling relations on Ma. Measurements of the granulation background and detections of solar-like oscillations in a statistically sufficient number of cool dwarf stars will be required for confirming the dependence of the theoretical scaling relations with Ma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three-dimensional model atmospheres for giants, dwarfs, and white dwarfs, computed with the CO5BOLD code and part of the CIFIST grid, have been used for spectroscopic and asteroseismic studies. Unlike existing plane-parallel 1D structures, these simulations predict the spatially and temporally resolved emergent intensity so that granulation can be analysed, which provides insights on how convective energy transfer operates in stars. The wide range of atmospheric parameters of the CIFIST 3D simulations (3600 < Teff (K) < 13 000 and 1 < log g < 9) allows the comparison of convective processes in significantly different environments. We show that the relative intensity contrast is correlated with both the Mach and Péclet numbers in the photosphere. The horizontal size of granules varies between 3 and 10 times the local pressure scale height, with a tight correlation between the factor and the Mach number of the flow. Given that convective giants, dwarfs, and white dwarfs cover the same range of Mach and Péclet numbers, we conclude that photospheric convection operates in a very similar way in those objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a critical review of the construction of 3D model atmospheres with emphasis on modeling challenges. We discuss the basic physical processes which give rise to the effects which set 3D models apart from 1D standard models. We consider elemental abundances derived from molecular features, and the determination of the microturbulence with 3D models. The examples serve as illustration of the limitations inherent to 1D, however, also to 3D modeling. We find that 3D models can provide constraints on the microturbulence parameter, and predict substantial corrections for abundances derived from molecular species. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Context. Carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars (CEMP) form a significant proportion of the metal-poor stars, their origin is not well understood, and this carbon-enhancement appears in stars that exhibit different abundance patterns. Aims. Three very metal-poor C-rich turnoff stars were selected from the SDSS survey, observed with the ESO VLT (UVES) to precisely determine the element abundances. In turnoff stars (unlike giants) the carbon abundance has not been affected by mixing with deep layers and is therefore easier to interpret. Methods. The analysis was performed with one dimensional (1D) local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE) static model atmospheres. When available, non-LTE corrections were applied to the classical LTE abundances. The 3D effects on the CH and CN molecular bands were computed using hydrodynamical simulations of the stellar atmosphere (CO5BOLD) and are found to be very important. Results. To facilitate a comparison with previous results, only 1D abundances are used in the discussion. The abundances (or upper limits) of the elements enable us to place these stars in different CEMP classes. The carbon abundances confirm the existence of a plateau at A(C)= 8.25 for [Fe/H] ≥ −3.4. The most metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] < −3.4) have significantly lower carbon abundances, suggesting a lower plateau at A(C) ≈ 6.5. Detailed analyses of a larger sample of very low metallicity carbon-rich stars are required to confirm (or refute) this possible second plateau and specify the behavior of the CEMP stars at very low metallicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sequence of pure-hydrogen CO5BOLD 3D model atmospheres of DA white dwarfs is presented for a surface gravity of log g = 8 and effective temperatures from 6000 to 13 000 K. We show that convective properties, such as flow velocities, characteristic granulation size and intensity contrast of the granulation patterns, change significantly over this range. We demonstrate that these 3D simulations are not sensitive to numerical parameters unlike the 1D structures that considerably depend on the mixing-length parameters. We conclude that 3D spectra can be used directly in the spectroscopic analyses of DA white dwarfs. We confirm the result of an earlier preliminary study that 3D model spectra provide a much better characterization of the mass distribution of white dwarfs and that shortcomings of the 1D mixing-length theory are responsible for the spurious high-log g determinations of cool white dwarfs. In particular, the 1D theory is unable to account for the cooling effect of the convective overshoot in the upper atmospheres. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars (CEMP) form a significant proportion of the metal-poor stars, their origin is not well understood, and this carbon-enhancement appears in stars that exhibit different abundance patterns. Aims. Three very metal-poor C-rich turnoff stars were selected from the SDSS survey, observed with the ESO VLT (UVES) to precisely determine the element abundances. In turnoff stars (unlike giants) the carbon abundance has not been affected by mixing with deep layers and is therefore easier to interpret. Methods. The analysis was performed with one dimensional (1D) local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE) static model atmospheres. When available, non-LTE corrections were applied to the classical LTE abundances. The 3D effects on the CH and CN molecular bands were computed using hydrodynamical simulations of the stellar atmosphere (CO5BOLD) and are found to be very important. Results. To facilitate a comparison with previous results, only 1D abundances are used in the discussion. The abundances (or upper limits) of the elements enable us to place these stars in different CEMP classes. The carbon abundances confirm the existence of a plateau at A(C) = 8.25 for [Fe/H] ⩾ -3.4. The most metal-poor stars ([Fe/H] < -3.4) have significantly lower carbon abundances, suggesting a lower plateau at A(C) ≈ 6.5. Detailed analyses of a larger sample of very low metallicity carbon-rich stars are required to confirm (or refute) this possible second plateau and specify the behavior of the CEMP stars at very low metallicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In preparation for future, large-scale, multi-object, high-resolution spectroscopic surveys of the Galaxy, we present a series of tests of the precision in radial velocity and chemical abundances that any such project can achieve at a 4 m class telescope. We briefly discuss a number of science cases that aim at studying the chemo-dynamical history of the major Galactic components (bulge, thin and thick disks, and halo) - either as a follow-up to the Gaia mission or on their own merits. Based on a large grid of synthetic spectra that cover the full range in stellar parameters of typical survey targets, we devise an optimal wavelength range and argue for a moderately high-resolution spectrograph. As a result, the kinematic precision is not limited by any of these factors, but will practically only suffer from systematic effects, easily reaching uncertainties <1km s-1. Under realistic survey conditions (namely, considering stars brighter than r = 16 mag with reasonable exposure times) we prefer an ideal resolving power of R ∼20 000 on average, for an overall wavelength range (with a common two-arm spectrograph design) of [395;456.5] nm and [587;673] nm. We show for the first time on a general basis that it is possible to measure chemical abundance ratios to better than 0.1 dex for many species (Fe, Mg, Si, Ca, Ti, Na, Al, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Y, Ba, Nd, Eu) and to an accuracy of about 0.2 dex for other species such as Zr, La, and Sr. While our feasibility study was explicitly carried out for the 4MOST facility, the results can be readily applied to and used for any other conceptual design study for high-resolution spectrographs. (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present first results from three-dimensional radiation magnetohydrodynamic simulations of M-type dwarf stars with CO5BOLD. The local models include the top of the convection zone, the photosphere, and the chromosphere. The results are illustrated for models with an effective temperature of 3240 K and a gravitational acceleration of log g = 4.5, which represent analogues of AD Leo. The models have different initial magnetic field strengths and field topologies. This first generation of models demonstrates that the atmospheres of M dwarfs are highly dynamic and intermittent. Magnetic fields and propagating shock waves produce a complicated fine-structure, which is clearly visible in synthetic intensity maps in the core of the Ca II K spectral line and also at millimeter wavelengths. The dynamic small-scale pattern cannot be described by means of one-dimensional models, which has important implications for the construction of semi-empirical model atmospheres and thus for the interpretation of observations in general. Detailed three-dimensional numerical simulations are valuable in this respect. Furthermore, such models facilitate the analysis of small-scale processes, which cannot be observed on stars but nevertheless might be essential for understanding M-dwarf atmospheres and their activity. An example are so-called 'magnetic tornadoes', which have recently been found on the Sun and are presented here in M-dwarf models for the first time. (© 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. To derive space velocities of stars along the line of sight from wavelength shifts in stellar spectra requires accounting for a number of second-order effects. For most stars, gravitational redshifts, convective blueshifts, and transverse stellar motion are the dominant contributors. Aims. We provide theoretical corrections for the net velocity shifts due to convection expected for the measurements from the Gaia Radial Velocity Spectrometer (RVS). Methods. We used a set of three-dimensional time-dependent simulations of stellar surface convection computed with CO5BOLD to calculate spectra of late-type stars in the Gaia RVS range and to infer the net velocity offset that convective motions will induce in radial velocities derived by cross-correlation. Results. The net velocity shifts derived by cross-correlation depend both on the wavelength range and spectral resolution of the observations. Convective shifts for Gaia RVS observations are less than 0.1 km s-1 for late-K-type stars, and they increase with stellar mass, reaching about 0.3 kms-1 or more for early F-type dwarfs. This tendency is the result of an increase with effective temperature in both temperature and velocity fluctuations in the line-forming region. Our simulations also indicate that the net RVS convective shifts can be positive (i.e. redshifts) in some cases. Overall, the blueshifts weaken slightly with increasing surface gravity, and are enhanced at low metallicity. Gravitational redshifts amount to 0.7 kms-1 and dominate convective blueshifts for dwarfs, but become much weaker for giants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We investigate the role of convection in the formation of atomic and molecular lines in the atmosphere of a red giant star. For this purpose we study the formation properties of spectral lines that belong to a number of astrophysically important tracer elements, including neutral and singly ionized atoms (Li i, Ni, Oi, Nai, Mgi, Al i, Si i, Si ii, S i, Ki, Cai, Caii, Ti i, Ti ii, Cr i, Cr ii, Mni, Fei, Fe ii, Coi, Ni i, Zni, Sr ii, Baii, and Euii), and molecules (CH, CO, C2, NH, CN, and OH). Methods. We focus our investigation on a prototypical red giant located close to the red giant branch (RGB) tip (Teff = 3660 K, log g = 1.0, [M/H] = 0.0). We used two types of model atmospheres, 3D hydrodynamical and classical 1D, calculated with the CO5BOLD and LHD stellar atmosphere codes, respectively. Both codes share the same atmospheric parameters, chemical composition, equation of state, and opacities, which allowed us to make a strictly differential comparison between the line formation properties predicted in 3D and 1D. The influence of convection on the spectral line formation was assessed with the aid of 3D-1D abundance corrections, which measure the difference between the abundances of chemical species derived with the 3D hydrodynamical and 1D classical model atmospheres. Results. We find that convection plays a significant role in the spectral line formation in this particular red giant. The derived 3D-1D abundance corrections rarely exceed ±0.1 dex when lines of neutral atoms and molecules are considered, which is in line with the previous findings for solar-metallicity red giants located on the lower RGB. The situation is different with lines that belong to ionized atoms, or to neutral atoms with high ionization potential. In both cases, the corrections for high-excitation lines (x > 8 eV) may amount to Δ3D-1D ∼ -0.4 dex. The 3D-1D abundance corrections generally show a significant wavelength dependence; in most cases they are smaller in the near-infrared, at 1600-2500 nm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]