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An endophytic fungus, Phoma sp. NG-25, produces a set of structurally related polyketides including cercosporamide, phomodione, and usnic acid, among which, cercosporamide has been reported to have strong antifungal and anticancer activities. In this study, Phoma sp. NG-25 was grown in seven growth media to determine the optimal culture condition conducive for cercosporamide production. Cercosporamide production peaked on the eighteenth day of incubation in beef peptone dextrose (BPD) broth media. The cercosporamide titer reached to an average of 77.5 µg/mL in BPD. Paper disk diffusion assay revealed that culture filtrate containing cercosporamide as a major constituent inhibited the growth of taxonomically diverse plant pathogens, including ascomycetous, basidiomycetous, and oomycete fungi. Cercosporamide exhibited strong antifungal activities against two pepper anthracnose pathogens, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and C. scovillei with EC50 values of 3.8 and 7.0 µg/mL, respectively. This study suggests the potential application of cercosporamide as an effective antifungal agent in controlling anthracnose in pepper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichens play crucial roles in the ecosystems, contributing to soil formation and nutrient cycling, and being used in biomonitoring efforts to assess the sustainability of ecosystems including air quality. Previous studies on heavy metal accumulation in lichens have mostly relied on manipulated environments, such as transplanted lichens, leaving us with a dearth of research on how lichens physiologically respond to heavy metal exposure in their natural habitats. To fill this knowledge gap, we investigated lichens from two of South Korea's geographically distant regions, Gangwon Province and Jeju Island, and examined whether difference in ambient heavy metal concentrations could be detected through physiological variables, including chlorophyll damage, lipid oxidation, and protein content. The physiological variables of lichens in response to heavy metals differed according to the collection area: Arsenic exerted a significant impact on chlorophyll degradation and protein content. The degree of fatty acid oxidation in lichens was associated with increased Cu concentrations. Our research highlights the value of lichens as a bioindicator, as we found that even small variations in ambient heavy metal concentrations can be detected in natural lichens. Furthermore, our study sheds light on which physiology variables that can be used as indicators of specific heavy metals, underscoring the potential of lichens for future ecology studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen-derived extracts are a potential source for skin health products due to their antioxidant activity that can prevent damage caused by ultraviolet (UV) rays. The slow natural growth and limited reproduction of lichens limit their use. However, endolichenic fungi (ELF) from lichen thalli can serve as a more efficient, rapid, and standardized biological resource for the cosmetic industry. We aimed to investigate the UV protection of Lobaria pulmonaria, Bryoria capillaris, and Usnea sp., and isolated ELF extracts. Total antioxidant, phenolic- flavonoid content, sun protection factor (SPF), and tyrosinase inhibitory activities of lichen and ELF extracts were also investigated. As a result, ELF extracts were found to have antioxidant content close to, and in some cases, much higher than lichen species. While SPF values of lichen species varied between 31.45-31.80, results close to lichens were found in the range of 6.54-32.01 values of ELF extracts. Interestingly, lichen extracts did not have tyrosinase inhibitory activity, while some ELF extracts had tyrosinase inhibitory activity in the range of 2.49-38.44. The results of this study suggest that ELF extracts may have the potential to be used as innovative UV protectants in the cosmetic industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Endolichenic fungi (ELF), which live the inside the lichen thallus, contain many secondary metabolites that show various biological activities. Recent studies show that lichen and ELF secondary metabolites have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, cytotoxic, and anticancer activities. Purpose: Here, the effects of an ELF extract and its bioactive compounds were investigated on the H1975 cell line focusing on immune checkpoint marker inhibition. Methods: An ELF was isolated from the host lichen Bryoria fuscescens (Gyelnik) Brodo and D. Hawksw and identified the species as Nemania sp. EL006872. The fungus was cultured on agar medium and acetonic extracts were obtained. Secondary metabolites radianspenes C and D, and dahliane D, were isolated from the crude extract. The biological effects of both the crude extract and the isolated secondary metabolites were evaluated in cell viability, qRT-PCR assays, flow cytometry analysis and western blotting. Results: The cell viability assay revealed that extracts from Nemania sp. EL006872 and the isolated secondary compounds had low cytotoxicity. The crude extract, radianspenes C and D, and dahliane D, suppressed expression of mRNA encoding PD-L1 and aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and surface expression of PD-L1 protein by cells exposed to benzo[a] pyrene. Radianspenes C and D, and dahliane D, reduced expression of AhR, PDL1, ICOSL, and GITRL proteins by H1975 lung cancer cells, as well as exerting anti-proliferative effects. Conclusion: Radianspenes C and D, and dahliane D, bioactive compounds isolated from Nemania sp. EL006872 ELF, have the potential for use as immunotherapy and immunoncology treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species, Bacidia fuscopallida Lee & Heo and four new records, B. ekmaniana R. C. Harris, Ladd & Lendemer, B. friesiana (Hepp) Körb., B. heterochroa (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr. and B. suffusa (Fr.) A. Schneid., are described from South Korea. Bacidia fuscopallida differs from B. diffracta S. Ekman, the most similar species, by warted but non-granular thallus, paler and smaller apothecia without pruina, proper exciple without crystals, over 11-septate ascospores and smaller pycnidia and pycnoconidia. Bacidia ekmaniana is recorded new to Asia, B. heterochroa is reported new to northeastern Asia and B. friesiana and B. suffusa are new to Korea. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences strongly support the classification of the five species of Bacidia. A surrogate key is provided to assist in the identification of all 19 taxa in Bacidia of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The new genus and species, Jejulea byssolomoides, is described from Jeju Island, Korea. This lichen is characterized by saxicolous, crustose, pale greenish-gray, partly finely filamentous, matt, smooth thallus, prominent convex brown to dark brown ascomata with a concolorous margin constricted at the dark brown base, 300-800 lm diameter, 200-250 lm high, without a distinct proper margin, adhering to the substratum ending in a minute byssoid white external part of cylindrical cells, fusiform 3--5 septate ascospores (17-23 x 4-5 lm). Phylogenetic analyses using ITS and mtSSU sequences place Jejulea in the Pilocarpaceae (Lecanorales). The new taxon is closely related to Byssoloma, a cosmopolitan group of foliicolous lichens, which is most diverse in the tropics. Like Byssoloma, Jejulea also forms a byssoid apothecial margin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rinodina salicis Lee & Hur and Rinodina zeorina Lee & Hur are described as new lichen-forming fungi from forested wetlands or a humid forest in South Korea. Rinodina salicis is distinguishable from Rinodina excrescens Vain., the most similar species, by its olive-gray thallus with smaller areoles without having blastidia, contiguous apothecia, non-pruinose discs, paler disc color, wider ascospores in the Pachysporariatype II, and the absence of secondary metabolites. Rinodina zeorina differs from Rinodina hypobadia Sheard by areolate and brownish thallus, non-pruinose apothecia, colorless and wider parathecium, narrower paraphyses with non-pigmented and unswollen tips, longer and narrower ascospores with angular to globose lumina, and the absence of pannarin. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences strongly support the two new species to be unique in the genus Rinodina. An updated key is provided to assist in the identification of all 63 taxa in Rinodina of the far eastern Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen is a symbiotic mutualism of mycobiont and photobiont that harbors diverse organisms including endolichenic fungi (ELF). Despite the taxonomic and ecological significance of ELF, no comparative investigation of an ELF community involving isolation of a pure culture and high-throughput sequencing has been conducted. Thus, we analyzed the ELF community in Parmotrema tinctorum by culture and metabarcoding. Alpha diversity of the ELF community was notably greater in metabarcoding than in culture-based analysis. Taxonomic proportions of the ELF community estimated by metabarcoding and by culture analyses showed remarkable differences: Sordariomycetes was the most dominant fungal class in culture- based analysis, while Dothideomycetes was the most abundant in metabarcoding analysis. Thirty-seven operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were commonly observed by cultureand metabarcoding-based analyses but relative abundances differed: most of common OTUs were underrepresented in metabarcoding. The ELF community differed in lichen segments and thalli in metabarcoding analysis. Dissimilarity of ELF community intra lichen thallus increased with thallus segment distance; inter-thallus ELF community dissimilarity was significantly greater than intra-thallus ELF community dissimilarity. Finally, we tested how many fungal sequence reads would be needed to ELF diversity with relationship assays between numbers of lichen segments and saturation patterns of OTU richness and sample coverage. At least 6000 sequence reads per lichen thallus were sufficient for prediction of overall ELF community diversity and 50,000 reads per thallus were enough to observe rare taxa of ELF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aspicilia humida Lee is described as a new lichen-forming fungus from a wetland forest, South Korea. The new species is distinguishable from Aspicilia aquatica (Fr.) Körb., the most similar species, by the absence of prothallus, black disk without green color in water, olivebrown epihymenium, shorter hymenium, hymenium I + yellowish blue-green, wider paraphysial tips without a vivid pigment, smaller asci, smaller ascospores, and the presence of stictic acid. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) sequences strongly support A. humida as a distinct species in the A. cinerea group. A surrogate key is provided to assist in the identification of all 28 aspicilioid species of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lecanora parasymmicta Lee & Hur and Protoparmeliopsis crystalliniformis Lee & Hur are described as new lichen species to science from the forested wetlands in southern South Korea. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) sequences strongly support the two lecanoroid species to be distinct in their genera. Lecanora parasymmicta is included in the Lecanora symmicta group. It is morphologically distinguished from Lecanora symmicta (Ach.) Ach., its most similar species, by areolate-rimose thallus, blackish hypothallus, larger apothecia, absence of thalline excipulum from the beginning, narrower paraphyses, larger ascospores, smaller pycnoconidia, and the presence of placodiolic acid. The second new species Protoparmeliopsis crystalliniformis is included in a clade with Protoparmeliopsis bipruinosa (Fink) S.Y. Kondr. and P. nashii (B.D. Ryan) S.Y. Kondr., differs from Protoparmeliopsis ertzii Bungartz & Elix, its most morphologically similar species, by whitish thallus, flat to concave and paler disc, longer ascospores, thallus K+ yellow reaction, presence of atranorin and rhizocarpic acid, and the substrate preference to sandstone or basalt. A key is provided to assist in the identification of Protoparmeliopsis species in Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pyrenodesmia rugosa Lee & Hur and Huriella aeruginosa Lee & Hur are described as new lichen-forming fungi from a calcareous mountain of South Korea. Pyrenodesmia rugosa is distinguishable from Pyrenodesmia micromontana (Frolov, Wilk & Vondrák) Hafellner & Türk, the most similar species, by thicker thallus, rugose areoles, larger apothecia, shorter hymenium, shorter hypothecium and narrower tip cells of paraphyses. Huriella aeruginosa, the second new species, differs from 'Squamulea' chelonia Bungartz & Søchting by dark greenish-grey to grey thallus without pruina, gold to yellow-brown epihymenium, larger ascospores and thallus K- and KC-reaction. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS), mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) and nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU) sequences strongly support the two caloplacoid species to be distinct in their genera. A surrogate key is provided to assist in the identification of all 20 taxa in Huriella and Squamulea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichens are a natural source of bioactive compounds. Cladonia metacorallifera var. reagens KoLRI002260 is a rare lichen known to produce phenolic compounds, such as rhodocladonic, thamnolic, and didymic acids. However, these metabolites have not been detected in isolated mycobionts. We investigated the effects of six carbon sources on metabolite biosynthesis in the C. metacorallifera mycobiont. Red pigments appeared only in Lilly and Barnett's media with fructose at 15 °C after 3 weeks of culture and decreased after 6 weeks. We purified these red pigments using preparativescale high performance liquid chromatography and analyzed them via nuclear magnetic resonance. Results indicated that 1% fructose-induced cristazarin and 6-methylcristazarin production under light conditions. In total, 27 out of 30 putative polyketide synthase genes were differentially expressed after 3 weeks of culture, implying that these genes may be required for cristazarin production in C. metacorallifera. Moreover, the white collar genes Cmwc-1 and Cmwc-2 were highly upregulated at all times under light conditions, indicating a possible correlation between cristazarin production and gene expression. The cancer cell lines AGS, CT26, and B16F1 were sensitive to cristazarin, with IC50 values of 18.2, 26.1, and 30.9 μg/mL, respectively, which highlights the value of cristazarin. Overall, our results suggest that 1% fructose under light conditions is required for cristazarin production by C. metacorallifera mycobionts, and cristazarin could be a good bioactive compound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichens are prolific producers of natural products of polyketide origin. We previously described a culture of lichen-forming fungus (LFF) Cladonia macilenta that produces biruloquinone, a purple pigment that is a phenanthraquinone rarely found in nature. However, there was no genetic information on the biosynthesis of biruloquinone. To identify a biosynthetic gene cluster for biruloquinone, we mined polyketide synthase (PKS) genes from the genome sequence of a LFF isolated from thalli of C. macilenta. The 38 PKS in C. macilenta are highly diverse, many of which form phylogenetic clades with PKS previously characterized in non-lichenized fungi. We compared transcriptional profiles of the 38 PKS genes in two chemotypic variants, one producing biruloquinone and the other producing no appreciable metabolite in vitro. We identified a PKS gene (hereafter PKS21) that was highly upregulated in the LFF that produces biruloquinone. The boundaries of a putative biruloquinone gene cluster were demarcated by co-expression patterns of six clustered genes, including the PKS21. Biruloquinone gene clusters exhibited a high degree of synteny between related species. In this study we identified a novel PKS family responsible for the biosynthesis of biruloquinone through whole-transcriptome analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endolichenic fungi (ELF) are emerging novel bioresources because their diverse secondary metabolites have a wide range of biological activities. Metagenomic analysis of lichen thalli demonstrated that the conventional isolation method of ELF covers a very limited range of ELF, and the development of an advanced isolation method is needed. The influence of four variables were investigated in this study to determine the suitable conditions for the isolation of more diverse ELF from a radially growing foliose lichen, Parmotrema tinctorum. Four variables were tested: age of the thallus, severity of surface-sterilization of the thallus, size of a thallus fragment for the inoculation, and nutrient requirement. In total, 104 species (1885 strains) of ELF were isolated from the five individual thalli of P. tinctorum collected at five different places. Most of the ELF isolates belong to Sordariomycetes. Because each part of lichen thallus (of different age) has unique ELF species, the whole thallus of the foliose lichen is needed to isolate diverse ELF. Moderate sterilization is appropriate for the isolation of diverse ELF. Inoculation of small fragment (1 mm²) of lichen thallus resulted in the isolation of highest diversity of ELF species compared to larger fragments (100 and 25 mm²). Moreover, ELF species isolated from the small thallus fragments covered all ELF taxa detected from the medium and the large fragments in this study. The use of two media—Bold’s basal medium (nutrient poor) and potato dextrose agar (nutrient rich)—supported the isolation of diverse ELF. Among the tested variables, size of thallus fragment more significantly influenced the isolation of diverse ELF than other three factors. Species composition and richness of ELF communities from different lichen thalli differed from each other in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the fascinating biology of lichens, such as the symbiotic association of lichenforming fungi (mycobiont) with their photosynthetic partners and their ability to grow in harsh habitats, lack of genetic tools manipulating mycobiont has hindered studies on genetic mechanisms underpinning lichen biology. Thus, we established an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) system for genetic transformation of a mycobiont isolated from Cladonia macilenta. A set of combinations of ATMT conditions, such as input biomass of mycobiont, co-cultivation period with Agrobacterium cells, and incubation temperature, were tested to identify an optimized ATMT condition for the C. macilenta mycobiont. As a result, more than 10 days of co-cultivation period and at least 2 mg of input biomass of the mycobiont were recommended for an efficient ATMT, owing to extremely slow growth rate of mycobionts in general. Moreover, we examined T-DNA copy number variation in a total of 180 transformants and found that 88% of the transformants had a single copy T-DNA insertion. To identify precise T-DNA insertion sites that interrupt gene function in C. macilenta, we performed TAIL-PCR analyses for selected transformants. A hypothetical gene encoding ankyrin repeats at its C-terminus was interrupted by T-DNA insertion in a transformant producing dark-brown colored pigment. Although the identification of the pigment awaits further investigation, this proof-of-concept study demonstrated the feasibility of use of ATMT in construction of a random T-DNA insertion mutant library in mycobionts for studying genetic mechanisms behind the lichen symbiosis, stress tolerance, and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physconia hokkaidensis methanol extract (PHE) was studied to identify anticancer effects and reveal its mechanism of action by an analysis of cytotoxicity, cell cycles, and apoptosis biomarkers. PHE showed strong cytotoxicity in various cancer cells, including HL-60, HeLa, A549, Hep G2, AGS, MDA-MB-231, and MCF-7. Of these cell lines, the growth of MDA-MB-231 was concentration-dependently suppressed by PHE, but MCF-7 was not affected. MDA-MB-231 cells, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells, do not express estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), whereas MCF-7 cells are ER-positive, PR-positive, and HER-2-negative breast cancer cells. The number of cells in sub-G1 phase was increased after 24 h of treatment, and annexin V/PI staining showed that the population size of apoptotic cells was increased by prolonged exposure to PHE. Moreover, PHE treatment downregulated the transcriptional levels of Bcl-2, AMPK, and p-Akt, whereas it significantly upregulated the levels of cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, and cleaved-PARP. In conclusion, it was confirmed that the PHE exhibited selective cytotoxicity toward MDA-MB-231, not toward MCF-7, and its cytotoxic activity is based on induction of apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two new species, Thelopsis ullungdoensis and Phylloblastia gyeongsangbukensis are described from Ullung-Do (Island), South Korea. The closest relatives from Europe and Korea are epiphytic Thelopsis flaveola which differs by their immersed or semi-immersed yellow ascomata, ascospores without halo and their habitat of smooth bark (mainly Fagus) in humid and cold climates. Thelopsis gangwondoensis differs by its bigger semi-immersed ascomata (600-700 µm in diam.), oblong halonate ascospores (8-12x6-8 µm) and its habitat of smooth bark of deciduous trees. P. gyeongsangbukensis differs from its relatives within the genus in having 5-septate ascospores (22-26x6-8 µmm), semi-immersed, subglobose asco-mata with a flattened top (250-400 µm) and a thin, matt, uneven gray-brown to gray-green continuous thallus without isidia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lecanora baekdudaeganensis Lee & Hur is described as a new lichenized fungus from Baekdudaegan Mountains, South Korea. The new species is classified into the Lecanora subfusca group - allophana type and distinguishable from Lecanora imshaugii Brodo by a darker thallus, brownish disc, K-insoluble granules on the surface of the epihymenium, shorter hypothecium, and the presence of oil droplets in the apothecial section. Molecular analyses employing internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) sequences strongly support Lecanora baekdudaeganensis as a distinct species in the genus Lecanora. A surrogate key is provided to assist in the identification of all 52 taxa in the genus Lecanora of Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Candelariella is a widespread lineage of lichenized ascomycetes with ambiguous relationships among species that have not solved completely. In this study, several specimens belonging to Candelariella were collected from China and South Korea, and the internal transcribed spacer region was generated to confirm the system position of the newly collected specimens. Combined with a morphological examination and phylogenetic analysis, two new areolate species, Candelariella rubrisoli and C. subsquamulosa, are new to science. Detail descriptions of each new species are presented. In addition, C. canadensis is firstly reported from China mainland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Candelaria is characterized by a micro-foliose to micro-fruticose thallus and contains eight species, two of which were reported in South Korea. During the excursion of a Korean lichen flora investigation, some suspected Candelaria concolor specimens were collected, and their morphological, chemical, molecular phylogenetic, and geographic analyses were conducted. The samples eventually proved to be a new species, Candelaria asiatica, which can be recognized by a small, yellow lobate thallus with a pulverulent surface, and a fragile lobe margin with blastidia or phyllidia-like lobules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Chrysothrix is very common around the world and easy to be recognized by its bright yellowish granular thallus. In this study, investigations of lichen mycota in South Korea and Chile from 2010 to 2017 have been done, and some Chrysothrix specimens were collected, based on the morphological and chemical study on these specimens, five species were confirmed in this study, including one new species from Chile, Chrysothrix chiiensis D. Liu & J.-S Hur, and one new record from South Korea, C. xanthina (Vain.) Kalb. Meanwhile, detail description and illustration for each species were present in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen genus Stereocaulon (Schreb.) Hoffm is distributed throughout the world. Although 15 Stereocaulon species have been recorded in Korea, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary research has been conducted for nearly two decades. In this study, we collected 260 putative Stereocaulon spp. samples and identified the species based on morphological, chemical, and molecular characteristics. From the collected samples, 10 species of Stereocaulon were identified, nine of which had already been reported, although this was the first report for the tenth, 5. octomerellum Hue, in Korea. General characteristics of Stereocaulon spp. include coralloid phyllocladia and tubercular cephalodia; however, the specimen first collected in Korea was a rare species with tomentum on the pseudopodetia. The specimen of 5. octomerellum is characterized by the presence of a primary thallus, granule to short coralloid phyllocladia, and pseudopodetia up to 1 cm in size, with tubercular cephalodia. To determine the phylogeny of the specimens, we compared the ITS sequences of ribosomal DNA and the (3-tubulin gene sequences. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the Korean Stereocaulon species were monophyletic and placed in the previous phylogenetic classification. Species of S. intermedium and S. exutum, however, were polyphyletic, and are morphologically variable and widespread species. Overall, we present here detailed morphological and chemical descriptions of each species identified and a revised key of all known Stereocaulon species in South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having studied ca 300 specimens and 23 publications, 170 taxa of lichen-forming and lichenicolous fungi are reported from various sources, 140 from published literature records and old herbarium specimens, and 30 species from recently collected material. One lichen species (Xylographa pallens), and two lichenicolous fungi (Clypeococcum hypocenomycis, Endococcus macrosporus) are new for Romania, and 30 lichen species are considered as new for the Călimani Mountains. According to available specimens, Coniocybe gracilenta was revised as Chaenotheca furfuracea, and Peltigera aphthosa as P. didactyla. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crustose lichen genus Pertusaria comprises over ca. 800 species worldwide. In total, 20 Pertusaria species were localized to the Mt. Sorak and Jeju-do in Korea. To date, information regarding the distribution of Pertusaria species in the South Korean peninsula is scarce. In this study, we collected Pertusaria species across South Korea and identified them based on morphological, chemical, and molecular characteristics. Of the 387 samples collected, we identified 24 taxa and 1 variety, of which 17 were previously recorded, and 6 taxa were newly found in South Korea (P. leioplaca, P. leucosora var. violascens, P. texana, P. thiospoda, P. thwaitesii, and P. xanthodes), 2 known species were transferred to Varicellaria (Varicellaria lactea and V. velata), one species was transferred to Variolaria as a new record (Variolaria multipunctoides) and one was a new species (P. jogyeensis J. S. Park & J.-S. Hur, sp. nov.). Characteristics of the newly discovered species, P. jogyeensis, are as follows: smooth to bumpy thallus, scattered to crowded poriform apothecia, blackish ostioles, definitely sunken, thin yellowish green rims around ostioles, 8-spored ascus, and the presence of perlatolic acid and thiophaninic acid (chlorinated xanthone). Phylogenetic studies on P. jogyeensis based on the mitochondrial small subunit sequence revealed proximity to P. flavicans and P. texana, and supported its classification as a new species within the genus Pertusaria. Additionally, we describe the chemical composition and morphology of all listed species in detail and provide an artificial key for identification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptothecia austrocoreana is a new lichen species from South Korea. The species is characterized by the presence of a heteromerous thallus and faveolate ascigerous area (ascomata) immersed in a slightly raised thallus. The species has muriform ascospores, (4)6-8-spored 8-11 × 3-4 septate, (34)36-48(51) × (17)19-23(25) µm. Atranorin, chloroatranorin, and barbatic acid are present. In the phylogenetic tree, C. austrocoreana belongs to the arthonioid clade in Arthoniaceae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of 121 species of lichens belonging to the genus Arthothelium have been described to date, most of which have been found in tropical regions. Here, we describe the discovery of a novel Arthothelium species for the first time in South Korea. Until now, Arthothelium ruanum was the only Arthothelium species reported in South Korea. Among the 113 specimens collected in this study, we identified A. ruanum and a putative new species, Arthothelium punctatum (J. S. Park & J.-S. Hur, sp. nov.). The diagnostic characters of A. punctatum are as follows: apothecia punctate, shortly elongate to branched, small, 0.1-0.2 mm wide, hypothecium hyaline to pale brown and obovate to broadly ellipsoid, muriform ascospores, 29.5-44.6 × 12.2-18.2 µm. The new species was found in Mt. Seokbyeong at an altitude of 790 m on smooth bark. Upon phylogenic analysis, the putative new species, A. punctatum, was separated from other Arthothelium species although the specimens analyzed were clustered with Arthoniaceae in phylogenetic trees based on both the mitochondrial small subunit (mtSSU) sequence and combined mtSSU and nuclear ribosomal large subunit sequences. Our data clearly indicate that this species is a new species belonging to the family Arthoniaceae. To elucidate the taxonomic characteristics of the new species, we provide morphological descriptions and a distribution map. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The species of the genus Chlorociboria Seaver are very common on the forest floor, and can be easily distinguished by small and numerous blue-green fruitbody, especially the blue substrate dyed with xylindein produced by this group. This genus has rather high species diversity in the Southern Hemisphere, while a little attention was paid to this group in East Asia area. During a field survey in South Korea, several Chlorociboria specimens were collected. Based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses, three species of Chlorociboria were reported, including one new record in South Korea and one new record in Jeju Island. The key to the species of Chlorociboria from South Korea is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichens are considered a great bio-resource because they produce large numbers of secondary metabolites with many biological activities; however, they have not been cultivated under artificial conditions to date. As a result, lichen substances from natural sources are limited and have not been widely utilized in commercial applications. Accordingly, interest in lichen-associated fungi, especially endogenic fungi, has increased. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight is harmful to human health, resulting in demand for effective UV filtering agents for use in sunscreen. In this study, we purified (3R)-5-hydroxymellein, which has UVA absorption activity, from the secondary metabolites of an endolichenic fungus (ELF000039). The antioxidant properties were then assessed by in vitro tests. The antioxidant activity of (3R)-5-hydroxymellein was high when compared to the recognized antioxidants ascorbic acid (ASA) and butyl hydroxyl anisole (BHA). Moreover, the compound exhibited no cytotoxicity toward mouse melanoma cell lines, B16F1 and B16F10, or the normal cell line, HaCaT. Furthermore, (3R)-5-hydroxymellein recovered the damage caused by UVB irradiation and inhibited melanin synthesis. Taken together, these results suggest that (3R)-5-hydroxymellein could have an interesting and vital profile to go further development as a multifunctional skin UV protectant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arthonia coreana, Arthonia superpallens, and Arthonia zelkovae are new species from South Korea. All new species are in the Euarthonia tribe, based on the key characteristics of colorless hypothecium and multi-cellular spores. A. coreana has a dull brownish hypophloedal thallus without bleaching and rounded or curved big apothecia in comparison with those of Arthonia punctiformis. A. coreana consistently exhibits 4-septate ascospores, which is a distinctive characteristic that distinguishes it from other Arthonia species. A. superpallens has a white-greenish thallus, pale yellowish apothecia, and a trentepohlioid alga. However, A. superpallens has no distinct prothallus, adnate, and convex apothecia, no pycnidia, and is UV-, in contrast with related species in the Arthonia antillarum group. A. zelkovae has a white, epiphloedal thallus, brownish-black epruinose apothecia covered with a whitish bark layer, and smaller ascospores in comparison with those of A. punctiformis. A. zelkovae consists of a chlorococcoid alga, which differs from related Arthonia species such as A. punctiformis, Arthonia pinastri, and Arthonia glaucella. Although A. zelkovae is similar to Arthonia dispersa in its white-colored thallus, blackish apothecia, and the presence of a chlorococcoid photobiont, A. zelkovae differs from the latter in having larger-sized 3-septate ascospores. Arthonia cinnabarina f. marginata, A. glaucella, Arthonia ilicinella, Arthonia lapidicola, Arthonia leioplacella, Arthonia pertabescens, A. pinastri, Arthonia spadicea, and Arthonia stellaris are newly described in Korea. The diagnostic characteristics of these species are discussed and presented. An artificial key is provided to facilitate identification of Arthonia species from Northeast Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenases, the nature's most versatile biological catalysts have unique ability to catalyse regio-, chemo-, and stereospecific oxidation of a wide range of substrates under mild reaction conditions, thereby addressing a significant challenge in chemocatalysis. Though CYP enzymes are ubiquitous in all biological kingdoms, the divergence of CYPs in fungal kingdom is manifold. The CYP enzymes play pivotal roles in various fungal metabolisms starting from housekeeping biochemical reactions, detoxification of chemicals, and adaptation to hostile surroundings. Considering the versatile catalytic potentials, fungal CYPs has gained wide range of attraction among researchers and various remarkable strategies have been accomplished to enhance their biocatalytic properties. Numerous fungal CYPs with multispecialty features have been identified and the number of characterized fungal CYPs is constantly increasing. Literature reveals ample reviews on mammalian, plant and bacterial CYPs, however, modest reports on fungal CYPs urges a comprehensive review highlighting their novel catalytic potentials and functional significances. In this review, we focus on the diversification and functional diversity of fungal CYPs and recapitulate their unique and versatile biocatalytic properties. As such, this review emphasizes the crucial issues of fungal CYP systems, and the factors influencing efficient biocatalysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen-forming fungi and extracts derived from them have been used as alternative medicine sources for millennia and recently there has been a renewed interest in their known bioactive properties for anticancer agents, cosmetics and antibiotics. Although lichen-forming fungus-derived compounds are biologically and commercially valuable, few studies have been performed to determine their modes of action. This study used chemical-genetic and chemogenomic high-throughput analyses to gain insight into the modes of action of Caloplaca flavoruscens extracts. High-throughput screening of 575 lichen extracts was performed and 39 extracts were identified which inhibited yeast growth. A C. flavoruscens extract was selected as a promising antifungal and was subjected to genome-wide haploinsufficiency profiling and homozygous profiling assays. These screens revealed that yeast deletion strains lacking Rsc8, Prol and Toa2 were sensitive to three concentrations (IC25.5, IC25 and IC50, respectively) of C. flavoruscens extract. Gene-enrichment analysis of the data showed that C. flavoruscens extracts appear to perturb transcription and chromatin remodeling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species and 2 new records of lichen genus Buellia were discovered from Chuja-do Island in Jeju Province during a recent floristic survey: B. chujana X. Y. Wang, S. Y. Kondr., L. Lőkös & J.-S. Hur sp. nov., B. halonia (Ach.) Tuck., and B. mamillana (Tuck.) W. A. Weber. The new species is characterized by a brown, areolate thallus, the presence of perlatolic acid, and a saxicolous habitat. Together with previously recorded species, 10 Buellia species were confirmed from Jeju-do Island. Among these species, 3 growing in the exposed rocky area contained xanthone (yellowish lichen thallus, UV + orange), indicating that production of xanthone in this genus might be a defense strategy against the harm of UV light. Although the genus Buellia has been thoroughly studied in Korea before, novel species have been discovered continuously, and large species diversity has been found in this crustose genus, even from a small rocky island. This study indicates that the coastal area harbors a vast number of crustose lichen species, and there is great potential to discover unknown lichens in the coastal rocky area in Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen-forming fungal proteins haw been seldom searched due to many difficulties in their extraction. Phenols, quinones, proteases, and other components released during cell disruption have been known to be the greatest challenges related to protein extraction from lichens. To overcome these problems and maintain good electrophorelic resolution and high protein concentration, an extraction buffer containing polyvinylpolypyrrolidone, ascorbic acid, Triton X-100, polyethylene glycol, proteinase, and oxidase inhibitors in sodium phosphate buffer was developed. This extraction buffer showed high efficiency for all lichen species tested in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphis yunnanensis is described here as a new species. It is taxonomically well characterized by entire labia, slit-like disc, lateral thalline margin, completely carbonized proper exciple, inspersed hymenium, 8-spored asci, muriform 25-45 × 8~12μm ascospores, and the presence of norstictic and stictic acids. The separation of the new species from other somewhat similar Graphis species is discussed. In addition, the study includes Graphis tenoriensis and Phlyctis kamatakana reported for the first lime from China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lichen studies, including biodiversity, phylogenetic relationships, and conservation concerns require definitive species identification, however many lichens can be challenging to identify at the species level. Molecular techniques have shown efficacy in discriminating among lichen taxa, however, obtaining genomic DNA from herbarium and fresh lichen thalli by conventional methods has been difficult, because lichens contain high proteins, polysaccharides, and other complex compounds in their cell walls. Here we report a rapid, easy, and inexpensive protocol for extracting PCR-quality DNA from various lichen species. This method involves the following two steps: first, cell breakage using a beadbeater; and second, extraction, isolation, and precipitation of genomic DNA. The procedure requires approximately 10 mg of lichen thalli and can be completed within 20 min. The obtained DNAs were of sufficient quality and quantity to amplify the internal transcribed spacer region from the fungal and algal lichen components, as well as to sequence the amplified products. In addition, 26 different lichen taxa were tested, resulting in successful PCR products. The results of this study validated the experimental protocols, and clearly demonstrated the efficacy and value of our KCl extraction method applied in the fungal and algal samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On the basis of extensive field investigation and a series of herbarium specimen identifications, we present and discuss the descriptions and distribution of 22 species of Ramalina found in the Hengduan Mountains of southwestern China. In this revisionary study, representatives of the Ramalina genus, including R. americana, R. confirmata, R. dendriscoides, R. obtusata, R. pacifica, R. pentecostii, R. peruviana, R. shinanoana, and R. subcomplanata are found for the first time in this area. In addition, R. holstii is reported for the first time China. Finally, a newly described species identified as Ramalina hengduanshanensis S. O. Oh & L. S. Wang is reported. It is characterized as growing from a narrow holdfast, solid, sparsely or richly and irregularly dichotomously branched, palmate and flattened lobes with distinctly dorsiventral appearance, surface rugose to reticulate, surface rugosely cracked, dense chondroid tissue, helmet shaped soralia at the tip. The species grows on rock and tree at the highest elevations in this area. Although very few lichen species belonging to the genus Ramalina have been collected above 4,000 m, this new species is found at this elevation. We present detailed morphological, anatomical, and chemical descriptions of this species along with molecular phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer rDNA sequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leptogium (Ach.) Cray is distributed throughout South Korea; however, for nearly two decades no detailed taxonomic or revisionary research on this lichen genus has been conducted. This study examined the specimens deposited in the lichen herbarium at the Korean Lichen Research Institute, and samples were identified using descriptions recently published in the scientific literature. In this revisionary study, a total of fourteen species of Leptogium were documented, including new records of Leptogium delavayi Hue, Leptogium denticulatum Nyl., and Leptogium trichophoroides P M. Jørg. & A. K. Wallace. Detailed descriptions o f each species are given, including their morphological, anatomical, and chemical characteristics. A key to all Leptogium species known to occur in South Korea is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results on molecular phylogeny of lichen-forming fungi of the genus Protoparmeliopsis based on nrDNA ITS1/ ITS2 and 28S LSU and mtDNA 12S SSU as well as on combined data set are provided. The position of this genus in the phylogenetic tree of the family Lecanoraceae is discussed. The genus Protoparmeliopsis found to be polyphyletic similarly to the genera Rhizoplaca, Lecanora and Protoparmelia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Usnea longissima has a long history of use as a traditional medicine. Several bioactive compounds, primarily belonging to the polyketide family, have been isolated from U. longissima. However, the genes for the biosynthesis of these compounds are yet to be identified. In the present study, three different types of non-reducing polyketide synthases (UIPKS2, UIPKS4, and UIPKS6) were identified from a cultured lichen-forming fungus of U. Iongissima. Phylogenetic analysis of product template domains showed that UIPKS2 and UIPKS4 belong to group IV, which includes the non-reducing polyketide synthases with an methyltransferase (MeT) domain that are involved in methylorcinol-based compound synthesis; UIPKS6 was found to belong to group I, which includes the non-reducing polyketide synthases that synthesize single aromatic ring polyketides, such as orsellinic acid. Reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis demonstrated that UIPKS2 and UIPKS4 were upregulated by sucrose; UIPKS6 was downregulated by asparagine, glycine, and alanine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphis upretii is a new lichen species discovered in Vietnam. The species is characterized by a loosely corticate, rough, whitish grey to greyish green thallus, elongate and irregularly branched lirellae with an apically thin complete thalline margin (negrosina morph), laterally carbonized, entire proper exciple, clear hymenium, hyaline, 16∼20 transversely locular ascospores, and about 50∼95 × 10 ∼15 μm in size. In addition, members of the taxon produce norstictic and stictic acids. Currently, the lichen flora of Vietnam include Arthonia radiata, Brigantiaea tricolor, Coenogonium implexum, Dirina paradoxa, Herpothallon sipmanhi, Pertusaria pertusa, and Sarcographina cyclospora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sticta (Schreber.) Ach. is one of the common lichen genera in tropical and subtropical regions, but not in the Korean Peninsula. For almost two decades, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary study has been done on this genus. This study was based on the specimens deposited in the lichen herbarium at the Korean Lichen Research Institute, and the samples were identified on the basis of recent literature. In this revisionary study, a total of eight species of Sticta, including a newly recorded one are documented. These species include Sticta fuliginosa (Dicks.) Ach., Sticta gracilis (Müll. Arg.) Zahlbr., Sticta limbata (Sm.) Ach., Sticta nylanderiana Zahlbr., Sticta sublimbata (J. Steiner) Swinscow & Krog, Sticta weigelii (Ach.) Vain., Sticta wrightii Tuck., and Sticta yatabeana Müll. Arg. Detailed descriptions of S. nylanderiana, S. sublimbata, S. weigelii, and S. yatabeana with their morphological, anatomical, and chemical characteristics are provided. A key description of all known Sticta species of the Korean Peninsula is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Korea is covered primarily by temperate vegetation; therefore, foliicolous lichens may not be expected to play an important role in its lichen flora. However, this study describes four foliicolous lichen species, Strigula concreta, S. macrocarpa, S. melanobapha, and S. subelegans, which are new to South Korea. These findings will lead to further research on foliicolous lichens and provide a better understanding of their distribution within the East Asian region. This is the first detailed report on foliicolous lichens and their distribution in South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study describes seven species that are new to the lichen mycota of South Korea. A taxonomic description of Arthonia excipienda, A. radiata, Arthothelium ruanum, Enterographa leucolyta, Fissurina elaiocarpa, Rinodina oleae, and Fhelotrema porinaceum was given and supported by distribution, ecology, and illustrations. Each species was compared with a species showing close resemblance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two species of the lichen genus Dirinaria (Tuck.) Clem. are recognized in the South Korean lichen mycota, viz: D. applanata and D. picta. Descriptions of each species with their morphological, anatomical, and chemical characteristics together with molecular analysis and a key to known Dirinaria species are presented. D. picta is recorded from South Korea for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Usnea Adans. is a somewhat rare lichen in South Korea, and, in nearly two decades, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary study has been conducted. This study was based on the specimens deposited in the lichen herbarium at the Korean Lichen Research Institute, and the samples were identified using information obtained from recent literature. In this study, a total of eight species of Usnea, including one new record, Usnea hakonensis Asahina, are documented. Detailed descriptions of each species with their morphological, anatomical, and chemical characteristics are provided. A key to all known Usnea species in South Korea is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The following new species for the lichen genus Graphis in Korea are reported: C. chlorotica, C. nanodes and C. tenuirima. A brief description of these species, together with their distribution, ecology, and illustrations are provided. A key to all known species of this genus from Korea is also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypotrachyna (Vainio) Hale is a somewhat rare lichen genus found on the Korean Peninsula. Since it was first recorded more than two decades ago, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary study of the genus has been conducted. Thus, the present study was conducted to carry out a detailed taxonomic and revisionary study of Hypotrachyna in South Korea. This study was based on specimens deposited in the Korean Lichen Research Institute (KoLRI). Detailed taxonomic studies and a literature review confirmed the presence of seven species of Hypotrachyna from South Korea, including one new record, Hypotrachyna nodakensis (Asahina) Hale. Descriptions of each species with their morphological, anatomical and chemical characters together with a key to all known Hypotrachyna species are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parmotrema A. Massal. is a common lichen genus scattered throughout the Korean Peninsula; however, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary study of this genus has been conducted for nearly two decades. Therefore, this study revised the taxonomy of this genus based on specimens deposited in the lichen herbarium at the Korean Lichen Research Institute and samples wereidentified using recent literature. In this revisionary study, a total of eighteer species of Parmotrema including eight new records [Parmotrema cetratum (Ach.) Hale, Parmotrema cristiferum (Taylor) Hale, Parmotrema grayanum (Hue) Hale, Parmotrema defectum (Hale) Hale, Parmotrema dilatatum (Vain.) Hale, Parmotrema margaritatum (Hue) Hale, Parmotrema pseudocrinitum (Abbayes) Hale, and Parmotrema subsumptum (Nyl.) Hale] are documented Detailed descriptions of each species with their morphological, anatomical and chemical characteristics are also given and a key to the known Parmotrema species of the Korean Peninsula is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study illustrates the status of thelotremoid Graphidaceae in South Korea. The taxonomy and systematics of thelotremoid licheus in the country have recently advanced greatly. Following the earlier known taxa from the group, four new records of the genus Thelotrema are reported and described briefly. An artificial key for all known species under thelotremoid group of Graphidaceae from South Korea is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myelochroa (Asahina) Elix & Hale is a common foliose lichen genus found on the Korean Peninsula. Since it was first recorded nearly two decades ago, no detailed taxonomic or revisionary study of the genus has been conducted. Thus, the current study was conducted to carry out a detailed taxonomic and revisionary study of Myelochroa in South Korea. This study was based on specimens deposited in the Korean Lichen Research Institute (KoLR1). Detailed taxonomic studies and a literature review confirmed the presence of twelve species of Myelochroa from S. Korea, including one new record, Mye- lochroa xantholepis (Mont. & Bosch) Elix & Hale. Descriptions of each species with their morphological, anatomical and chemical characters together with a key to all known Myelochroa species are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]