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Much land has been cleared of indigenous forest for pastoral agriculture worldwide. In New Zealand, the clearance of indigenous forest on hill country has resulted in high food production, but waterways have become turbid, with high nutrient and E. coli concentrations. A range of on-farm mitigations are available, but it is unclear how they should be applied catchment-wide. We have developed a catchment-scale model that integrates economics with ecosystem services to find a better balance between agriculture and nature. In the upper Wairua catchment, Northland, if three actions are prioritised—(1) keeping stock out of streams, (2) constructing flood retention bunds in first-order catchments, and (3) planting trees on highly erodible land—then sediment loads, E. coli levels, and flooding are significantly reduced. Implementing these actions would cost approximately 10% of catchment net revenue, so it is feasible with a combination of regulation and subsidy. Many catchments in New Zealand are primarily pastoral agriculture, as in other countries (in North and South America, Australasia, and the United Kingdom), and would benefit from the analysis presented here to guide development along sustainable pathways. While pastoral agriculture typically stresses waterways, with increased sedimentation and freshwater contaminants, much can be done to mitigate these effects with improved farm and riparian management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governments around the world are seeking to slow the spread of Covid-19 and reduce hospitalisations by encouraging mass vaccinations for Covid-19. The success of this policy depends on most of the population accepting the vaccine and then being vaccinated. Understanding and predicting the motivation of individuals to be vaccinated is, therefore, critical in assessing the likely effectiveness of a mass vaccination programme in slowing the spread of the virus. In this paper we draw on the I3 Response Framework to understand and predict the willingness of New Zealanders to be vaccinated for Covid-19. The Framework differs from most studies predicting willingness to be vaccinated because it is based on the idea that the willingness to adopt a behaviour depends on both involvement (a measure of motivational strength) with the behaviour and attitudes towards the behaviour. We show that predictions of individuals' willingness to be vaccinated are improved using involvement and attitudes together, compared to attitudes alone. This result has important implications for the implementation of mass vaccination programmes for Covid-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agencies are increasingly developing evidence-based policies to manage natural resources. However, the influence of science in policy is not straightforward nor guaranteed. Critiques based on literature meta-analyses or policy-maker interviews suggest deficiencies in science production and delivery with some studies highlighting the importance of human dimensions. In interviews with decision-makers in freshwater policy in New Zealand and California, we investigated barriers to using science in complex and contested policy contexts. Findings highlighted the importance of the science, scientist, decision-maker, and the decision maker's relationship with the scientist, for improving the influence of science on policy decisions. The influence depended more on the scientist delivering the information and the audience receiving it, than on the nature of the science itself. Frameworks like CRELE (credibility, relevance, legitimacy) and ACTA (applicability, comprehensiveness, timing, accessibility) are essential but outweighed by the human dimensions of policy development. With greater public, industry and NGO oversight of policy debates related to highly contested resources like water, the volume and quality of science for policy has greatly improved, meaning CRELE and ACTA factors have less prevalence. We give three categories of recommendations for improving the use of science in decision-making – science communication, science production and policy processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Governments around the world are seeking to slow the spread of Covid-19 by implementing measures that encourage, or mandate, changes in people's behaviour. These changes include the wearing of face masks, social distancing, and testing and self-isolating when unwell. The success of these measures depends on the commitment of individuals to change their behaviour accordingly. Understanding and predicting the motivation of individuals to change their behaviour is therefore critical in assessing the likely effectiveness of these measures in slowing the spread of the virus. In this paper we draw on a novel framework, the I3 Compliance Response Framework, to understand and predict the motivation of residents in Auckland, New Zealand, to comply with measures to prevent the spread of Covid-19. The Framework is based on two concepts. The first uses the involvement construct to predict the motivation of individuals to comply. The second separates the influence of the policy measure from the influence of the policy outcome on the motivation of individuals to comply. In short, the Framework differentiates between the strength of individuals' motivation and their beliefs about the advantages and disadvantages of policy outcomes and policy measures. We found this differentiation was useful in predicting an individual's possible behavioural responses to a measure and discuss how it could assist government agencies to develop strategies to enhance compliance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Zealand's Resource Management Act requires avoiding, remedying or mitigating effects of human activities on the environment, including taking action to maintain terrestrial indigenous biodiversity. Here, we suggest that maintaining biodiversity requires halting its current decline, and to achieve that, New Zealand must move away from deeming only significant ecosystems and biota worthy of protection. We identify effects that must be avoided in order to maintain biodiversity, and those to be avoided unless they can be fully and promptly remediated. Effects should be avoided that reduce the extent and quality of most ecosystems and the habitats of indigenous species, including many highly modified ecosystems and habitats. Effects can be remediated only for a few, usually low-diversity and recently-established indigenous ecosystems and habitats, and we suggest a human generation (25 years) should be the maximum time to full remediation. Effects on individuals from some species' populations (but not populations at range or environmental limits, or outliers) may be remediated through replacement in certain circumstances. The clearance and modification of young (< 25 years), non-indigenous, non-riparian ecosystems that are neither important for connectivity and buffering nor habitat for threatened or at-risk indigenous species, may have a limited adverse effect on maintaining biodiversity, but could compromise ecosystem services and remove opportunities for future restoration. The approach to avoidance we suggest would help to slow the cumulative and ongoing loss of terrestrial biodiversity caused by multiple minor effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the implications of policy on farm income, land use, and the environment when New Zealand landowners face multiple environmental constraints. It also looks at the interaction between climate and nutrient reduction policy and the extent to which one policy can be used to meet the other's objectives.We use a non-linear, partial equilibrium mathematical programming model of New Zealand land use to assess the economic impacts of climate and water policies at the New Zealand territorial authority level. The spatially explicit agro-environmental economic model estimates changes in land use, agricultural output, land management, and environmental impacts. The policies investigated include a range of carbon prices on land-based emissions ($0-30/tCO2e) as well a range of prices on nitrogen leaching from diffuse sources ($0-30/kgN). We estimate that implementing stand-alone greenhouse gas and nutrient emissions reduction policies for the agricultural and forestry sectors will create environmental benefits outside the scope of the policy. However, not all environmental outputs improve, and net farm revenue declines by between 0 and 11%. Simultaneously implementing the two policies results in the desired goals of reductions in nitrogen and greenhouse gas emissions with a marginal economic burden on landowners (i.e. 1-2% additional loss in farm profit relative to a stand-alone policy). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Common pool resources are increasingly examined through social–ecological systems (SES) lenses to understand multifaceted natural resource issues through interdisciplinary approaches. Using frameworks grounded in environmental governance and SES, we examine the multijurisdictional institutional network of Kaipara Harbour in New Zealand. We find that while the conventional form of regulatory management has persisted until recently, the network has been modified to a more collaborative and cooperative configuration. We argue that although the decision-making capacities of the Kaipara Harbour network are unchanged, the emergence of informal and self-organized subsystems is vital to the successful management of the harbour. This case illustrates the value of combining the governance network framework, allowing us to view the material relationships between actors, and the SES framework, pressing us to isolate those action arenas with the most power, the most legitimacy, and perhaps the more effective role to play in stewarding the region’s natural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In support of natural resource and ecosystem service policy, monetary value estimates are often presented to decision makers along with other types of information. There is some evidence that, presented with such ‘mixed’ information, people prioritise monetary over non-monetary information. We conduct a discrete choice experiment among New Zealand decision makers in which we manipulate the information presented to participants. We find that providing explicit monetary information strengthens the pursuit of economic benefits as well as the avoidance of environmental damage. Cultural impacts, of which we provided only qualitative descriptions, did not affect respondents’ choices. Our study provides further evidence that concerns regarding the use of monetary information in decisions with complex, multi-value impacts are valid. Further research is needed to validate our results and find ways to reduce any bias in monetary and non-market information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses an innovative land tax to deal with the poor integration of environmental, land use and economic growth policies in New Zealand which has failed to slow down biodiversity loss and environmental deterioration.

Since 2012 there has been an upsurge in New Zealand’s interest in how ecosystem service (ES) concepts can be used to assist decision-making. This paper outlines the progress New Zealand has made in integrating the ES concept into decision-making at government and business levels and provides insights into the challenges encountered. The observations and insights outlined in this paper are based on the interaction of the authors with the various actors in these dialogues and from their involvement in initiatives being undertaken by government and business. The key challenges discussed cover knowledge, indicators, indigenous cultural values, language and communication and decision-making. The paper also provides evidence to support or counter some of the ES critiques. While challenges exist with integrating ESs into decision-making, evidence to date suggests the approach is compelling and provides a structured, transparent and neutral mechanism to manage natural resources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A regional ecological risk assessment was conducted for the Kaipara Harbour catchment in New Zealand. The Relative Risk Model was used to prioritize management of the sources of stress and habitats of concern in the basin. Semi-structured interviews with 25 representative stakeholders were conducted to obtain the resource-users’ perspectives and to identify the regional stressor sources and receptor habitat data for the model. For this risk analysis we divided the catchment into nine ecological districts. Mixed-methodological approaches including content analysis, geospatial analysis, and source documentation were used to categorize source and habitat rankings, based on the relative abundance of each in the nine ecological districts. Risk characterization revealed that fishing pressure and tidal energy pose the largest sources of perceived risk to the catchment; shellfish and Maui dolphin habitats are the receptors estimated to be at greatest risk; and the Kaipara and Rodney ecological districts are the sub-regions estimated with the greatest combined risk. A Monte Carlo analysis confirmed the source inputs and revealed greater uncertainty than the estimated habitat input results. The results of this assessment can be used by policy-makers, conservation groups, and municipalities to inform the future management efforts in the harbor and catchment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A recent paper by Doole and Marsh (2013), questioned the validity of using the New Zealand Forest and Agriculture Regional Model (NZFARM) for New Zealand agri-environmental policy analysis. We respond to their critique by clearly describing the model structure, explaining the NZFARM parameterisation, calibration, and validation procedure, and presenting estimates from a series of nutrient reduction policy scenarios to highlight the utility of the model. In doing so, we demonstrate that NZFARM generates logical and intuitive results that can be used for robust agri-environmental policy decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural and forestry greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are a key feature of New Zealand's emissions profile, and New Zealand is the only country, to date, to have indicated that agricultural and forestry emissions will be covered under their domestic climate policy-the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZETS). Forestry entered the NZETS in 2008, while agricultural emissions are expected to enter in 2015. Coupled with climate policy development is the increasing scrutiny of agricultural impacts on water in New Zealand. Given the multiple forms of environmental regulation facing the agricultural and forestry industries we explore, at the catchment level, the impacts of climate and water policy on the agricultural and forestry industries, including those on farm returns, water quality, GHG emissions, carbon sequestration and induced land use change. This enables us to understand the interaction between climate and water policy and the extent to which water policy can be used to meet climate obligations, and vice versa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surplus nitrogen from agricultural production is a leading cause of water quality problems in the U.S. It is also a source of nitrous oxide, the largest category of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Any reduction in the amount of nitrogen lost from farming practices would produce significant benefits for both water quality and climate protection. Using a model of the U.S. agricultural sector we adapted to explore water quality and climate issues, we evaluate a variety of policy options for their impact on farm income and the environment. We find that policies to create markets for reductions in nitrogen lost to water or greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture would increase farm income while producing cost-effective environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surplus nitrogen from agricultural production is a leading cause of water quality problems in the U.S. It is also a source of nitrous oxide, the largest category of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Any reduction in the amount of nitrogen lost from farming practices would produce significant benefits for both water quality and climate protection. Using a model of the U.S. agricultural sector we adapted to explore water quality and climate issues, we evaluate a variety of policy options for their impact on farm income and the environment. We find that policies to create markets for reductions in nitrogen lost to water or greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture would increase farm income while producing cost-effective environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Provides information on the effect of industrial development on the quality of water and other issues concerning water pollution in the United States. Effect of industrial effluents on the United States coastlines; Application of wastewater treatment plants and industrial facilities to recover rivers and lakes; Discussion on the importation of drinking water.

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Using Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Estimate Climate-Change Mitigation".