Search

(2021) Beyond species richness and community composition: Using plant functional diversity to measure restoration success in jarrah forest. .006** ht These new results show a significant decline in species richness with both restoration age (Figure 3; Table 3) and with time since fire (Figure 5; Table 3). [Extracted from the article]

Aim: The importance of restoring ecosystem functions to native systems that have been degraded, damaged or destroyed is increasingly recognised. Yet few studies have measured the effect of restoration efforts on ecosystem functioning or the functional diversity (FD) that underpins it. Here we assessed change in FD of restored assemblages one to 25 years after the onset of post‐mine restoration. Location: Northern Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Donn ex Sm.) Forest bioregion of southwestern Australia. Methods: Functional richness, evenness, divergence and dispersion were derived from five plant functional traits relevant to community reassembly. Effects of three explanatory variables (i.e. age, year restoration was initiated, and time since fire) on six response variables (i.e. four FD indices, species richness, and compositional similarity to nearby reference forest) were analysed using linear mixed models for a data set with repeated measures of plots through time (n = 810 plots), and linear models for a subset of one‐time measures of different aged assemblages (i.e. space‐for‐time approach; n = 490 plots). Results: Functional evenness and functional dispersion increased with age, while functional divergence and functional richness decreased with age. Functional dispersion increased with time since fire, while functional richness decreased with time since fire. Species richness decreased with age, but at 25 years, species richness was comparable to that observed in reference forest. In contrast, similarity showed no relationship with age of restored forest, and at 25 years, similarity of restored forest to reference was low compared with similarity of reference forest to itself. Three of four FD indices had not reached those of reference jarrah forest 25 years after restoration had been initiated. Conclusions: Reassembly of FD suggests importance of environmental filtering and high functional redundancy. A longer time frame may be needed to assess FD of restored assemblages, and in the meantime, species richness is not an adequate surrogate of FD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a general perception that dust accumulation on plant surfaces causes negative impacts to plants. Consequently, it is common for environmental regulatory agencies to apply vegetation monitoring requirements to oil, gas and mining developments. We use two independent, medium-term monitoring studies in semi-arid Australia to examine this relationship at two scales: plant health and survivorship of a threatened subspecies ( Tetratheca paynterae paynterae: Elaeocarpaceae) at Windarling Range between 2003 and 2014; and changes in plant health and floristic composition on Barrow Island between 2009 and 2014. Accumulation of dust decreased rapidly with distance from source. At Windarling Range, even at the site with the highest dust load, there was no significant impact on Tetratheca paynterae paynterae compared with the less dusty sites for 10 years. Similarly, there was no significant effect between distance from the source of dust and floristic composition on Barrow Island for 5 years. The probability of plants transitioning to a lower health condition between one year and the next did not appear to be related to dust load. This is further supported by comparing the same site before and after paving the road (removal of dust source), which showed no clear trends. Trends in plant health are likely to be driven more by the variability of cumulative rainfall in the preceding 5 months than dust load. The observed temporal variation in the mean dust load may also be related to variation in rainfall. In conclusion, in these case studies from semi-arid Australia, we find no evidence to support the perception that, under the observed climatic condition and dust deposition rates up to 20 or 77 g m−2 per month at Windarling Range and Barrow Island, respectively, dust accumulation on plants causes negative impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Global climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of drought in dry regions due to warming temperatures and declining rainfall. Severe drought can trigger tree mortality and drive persistent vegetation change. 2. To date, most empirical studies have focused on drought-induced mortality of adult trees, but this needs to be matched by similar efforts to understand drought impacts on seedling establishment if we are to understand the resilience of the world's forests to projected climate change. 3. The Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah)-forest ecoregion of south-western Australia has experienced a 17% reduction in mean annual rainfall from 1975 to 2011 compared with mean rainfall from 1900 to 1974. Drought-induced mortality of adult trees has been documented for jarrah forest, but there is limited understanding of its capacity to recover, making it difficult to predict the likelihood of persistent effects. 4. Long-term records of jarrah-forest restoration following bauxite mining are available for the 19-year period between 1992 and 2010. Records include annual data on seedling establishment in restored mine sites for 587 species in 1938 plots during a period of climatic variability. 5. We built a structural equation model to discriminate the relative effects of climate, restoration practice, and their interactive effects on three response variables including species richness of the restored plant assemblages. Climate variability had a significant negative effect on richness, but the effect size was relatively small, being less than half that of varying restoration practice. We suggest this is due, in part, to the reliability of rainfall (i.e. no change in the coefficient of variation, seasonality or evenness, between recent and historical climates) despite a threefold difference in the absolute amount of wet-season rainfall. Importantly, there was no evidence that restoration practices were compromised by interacting effects of increased climate variability. 6. Synthesis. Jarrah-forest establishment in a restoration context appears resistant to recent changes in climate. Our research highlights the importance of deriving multiple metrics of climate change to understand community responses. In particular, rainfall reliability should be a focus of future research to determine its broader significance to seedling establishment in forests subject to a drying climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental monitoring is becoming increasingly sophisticated with the widespread adoption of data loggers, sensor arrays and remote sensing, leading to larger scale, higher resolution and superior quality data. However, interpreting monitoring data and deciding when and how to apply environmental management remains a subjective and underdeveloped area of research. Control charts, developed in industrial settings to identify when manufacturing processes were beyond the acceptable bounds of production quality, represent one solution. Despite their potential utility, control charts have rarely been adopted in environmental monitoring. In theory, they are able to identify undesirable trends early and provide transparent and broadly consensual criteria for defining when management action should take place, that is action is triggered when parameter values are observed beyond the agreed control limits of the process. Once triggered, a predetermined management action is implemented. Possible actions are many and varied, and range from investigation and increased monitoring to intervention in the system. Here, the utility of control charts in monitoring water supply in south-western Australia from 1911 to 2010 is examined, and their ability to provide an early, transparent and easily understandable means of triggering management action is assessed. Two control chart types are applied: the X-bar chart and the CUSUM chart. X-bar charts varied widely in their ability to trigger action and were insensitive to many traditional threshold criteria (of which there are many to choose from). In contrast, standard CUSUM charts are specifically designed to detect subtler shifts away from a mean trend and hence provided a more consistent warning of the decline in water supply. While managers were aware of the decline in water supply from an early stage, we believe that control charts could have clearly communicated this earlier, enabling consensus among decision makers to be reached more rapidly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of all feeding guilds, understorey insectivores are thought to be most sensitive to disturbance and forest conversion. We compared the composition of bird feeding guilds in tropical forest fragments with adjacent agro-ecosystems in a montane region of south-west Ethiopia. We used a series of point counts to survey birds in 19 agriculture and 19 forest sites and recorded tree species within each farm across an area of 40 × 35 km. Insectivores (~17 spp. per plot), frugivores (~3 spp. per plot) and omnivores (~5 spp. per plot) maintained species density across habitats, while granivores and nectarivores increased in the agricultural sites by factors of 7 and 3 respectively. Species accumulation curves of each guild were equal or steeper in agriculture, suggesting that agricultural and forest landscapes were equally heterogeneous for all bird guilds. Counter to most published studies, we found no decline in insectivore species richness with forest conversion. However, species composition differed between the two habitats, with certain forest specialists replaced by other species within each feeding guild. We suggest that the lack of difference in insectivorous species numbers between forest and agriculture in this region is due to the benign nature of the agricultural habitat, but also due to a regional species pool which contains many bird species which are adapted to open habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

To use a fine-grained global model of ant diversity to identify the limits of our knowledge of diversity in the context of climate change. Global. We applied generalized linear modelling to a global database of local ant assemblages to predict the species density of ants globally. Predictors evaluated included simple climate variables, combined temperature × precipitation variables, biogeographic region, elevation, and interactions between select variables. Areas of the planet identified as beyond the reliable prediction ability of the model were those having climatic conditions more extreme than what was represented in the ant database. Temperature was the most important single predictor of ant species density, and a mix of climatic variables, biogeographic region and interactions between climate and region yielded the best overall model. Broadly, geographic patterns of ant diversity match those of other taxa, with high species density in the wet tropics and in some, but not all, parts of the dry tropics. Uncertainty in model predictions appears to derive from the low amount of standardized sampling of ants in Asia, in Africa and in the most extreme (e.g. hottest) climates. Model residuals increase as a function of temperature. This suggests that our understanding of the drivers of ant diversity at high temperatures is incomplete, especially in hot and arid climates. In other words, our ignorance of how ant diversity relates to environment is greatest in those regions where most species occur - hot climates, both wet and dry. Our results have two important implications. First, temperature is necessary, but not sufficient, to explain fully the patterns of ant diversity. Second, our ability to predict ant diversity is weakest exactly where we need to know the most, the warmest regions of a warming world. This includes significant parts of the tropics and some of the most biologically diverse areas in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which investigated the common abundance-diversity relationship shared by canopy and litter ant assemblages influenced by similar but not identical climatic drivers. Data were compiled by the researchers on canopy ant species density from studies that sampled arboreal assemblages by canopy fogging. It was observed that canopy species have the tendency to be more sensitive to the positive effects of temperature and precipitation.

The article discusses a study describing the ecology and basic biology of the keystone seed disperser ant, Rhytidoponera violacea. It is stated that the study was conducted in the Geraldton Sandplains situated in the mid west cost of western Australia. It further state that these ants help in the dispersal and redispersal of seeds due to their foraging behavior and are beneficial to the plants due to their shallow and ephemeral nest.

Aim We examine the relative importance of seed dispersal mode in determining the range size and range placement in 524 species from six focal plant families (Agavaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvacaeae, Sapindaceae, Proteaceae and Fabaceae ( Acacia)). Location Western Australia. Methods Taxa were categorized by dispersal mode and life-form and their distributions modelled usingmaxent. Geographical range size was compared amongst dispersal mode, life-form and biome using phylogenetically independent contrasts. Geographical range placement was considered in a similar manner. Results Range size did not vary with dispersal mode (ant versus wind and vertebrate dispersal) or life-form, and instead varied primarily as a function of the biogeographical region in which a species was found. Range placement, however, did vary among dispersal modes, with the consequence that diversity of wind- and ant-dispersed plants increased with latitude while the diversity of vertebrate-dispersed plants was more evenly distributed. Main conclusions For the taxa studied, range sizes were a function of the biogeographical region in which species were found. Although differences in range size may exist among species differing in dispersal modes, they are likely to be far smaller than differences among species from different biogeographical regions. The trait most likely to affect species geographical range size, and hence rarity and risks associated with other threats, may simply be the geographical region in which that species has evolved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The extraordinary diversification of angiosperm plants in the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods has produced an estimated 250,000-300,000 living angiosperm species and has fundamentally altered terrestrial ecosystems. Interactions with animals as pollinators or seed dispersers have long been suspected as drivers of angiosperm diversification, yet empirical examples remain sparse or inconclusive. Seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory) may drive diversification as it can reduce extinction by providing selective advantages to plants and can increase speciation by enhancing geographical isolation by extremely limited dispersal distances. Methodology/Principal Findings: Using the most comprehensive sister-group comparison to date, we tested the hypothesis that myrmecochory leads to higher diversification rates in angiosperm plants. As predicted, diversification rates were substantially higher in ant-dispersed plants than in their non-myrmecochorous relatives. Data from 101 angiosperm lineages in 241 genera from all continents except Antarctica revealed that ant-dispersed lineages contained on average more than twice as many species as did their non-myrmecochorous sister groups. Contrasts in species diversity between sister groups demonstrated that diversification rates did not depend on seed dispersal mode in the sister group and were higher in myrmecochorous lineages in most biogeographic regions. Conclusions/Significance: Myrmecochory, which has evolved independently at least 100 times in angiosperms and is estimated to be present in at least 77 families and 11 000 species, is a key evolutionary innovation and a globally important driver of plant diversity. Myrmecochory provides the best example to date for a consistent effect of any mutualism on largescale diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many taxa show a latitudinal gradient in richness, the relationship between latitude and species richness is often asymmetrical between the northern and southern hemispheres. Here we examine the latitudinal pattern of species richness across 1003 local ant assemblages. We find latitudinal asymmetry, with southern hemisphere sites being more diverse than northern hemisphere sites. Most of this asymmetry could be explained statistically by differences in contemporary climate. Local ant species richness was positively associated with temperature, but negatively (although weakly) associated with temperature range and precipitation. After contemporary climate was accounted for, a modest difference in diversity between hemispheres persisted, suggesting that factors other than contemporary climate contributed to the hemispherical asymmetry. The most parsimonious explanation for this remaining asymmetry is that greater climate change since the Eocene in the northern than in the southern hemisphere has led to more extinctions in the northern hemisphere with consequent effects on local ant species richness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Estimating distances and rates of seed dispersal, especially long-distance dispersal (LDD), is critical for understanding the dynamics of patchily distributed populations and species’ range shifts in response to environmental change. • Daviesia triflora (Papilionaceae) is an ant-dispersed shrub. The ant Rhytidoponera violacea was recorded dispersing its seeds to a maximum distance of 4.7 m, and in more intensive trials seeds of a related species from the study area, to a maximum of 8.1 m. • Microsatellite DNA markers and population assignment tests identified interpopulation immigrants among 764 plants on 23 adjacent dunes bearing D. triflora, and 13 interpopulation seed dispersal (LDD) events (1.7%) were inferred. The distance between source and sink populations ranged from 410 m to 2350 m (mean 1260 m). These distances exceed ant dispersal distances by two to three orders of magnitude but are comparable with previous measurements of LDD for two co-occurring wing-seeded (wind-dispersed) species from the same system. • The observed distances of seed dispersal in this arillate species demonstrate the significance of nonstandard dispersal mechanisms in LDD and the independence of these from primary dispersal syndromes. The likely role of emus in dispersal of the many ‘ant-dispersed’ species in Australia is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coffee cultivation plays a role in biodiversity alteration and conservation in much of the tropics. This is particularly so in Ethiopia, where coffee is an indigenous shrub and a major commodity in national and local trade. In southwestern Ethiopia, coffee ( Coffea arabica, “highland coffee”) is harvested from both forests (its natural habitat) and from within farmland where it is grown in small patches under isolated shade trees. We investigated the effects of management practices on bird assemblages in each of these systems. We found that bird assemblages in the forest remnants were distinct from those in the farmland even if many species were regularly found in both habitats. Coffee cultivation in open farmlands promoted bird species diversity through the retention of forest trees, while coffee cultivation in forests reduced bird diversity. Forest coffee management may, however, ensure that forest remnants are not converted to other forms of more open agriculture. Certification standards for “ecologically friendly” coffee in Ethiopia need to take this complexity into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has already altered global patterns of biodiversity by modifying the geographic distributions of species. Forecasts based on bioclimatic envelop modeling of distributions of species suggests greater impacts can be expected in the future, but such projections are contingent on assumptions regarding future climate and migration rates of species. Here, we present a first assessment of the potential impact of climate change on a global biodiversity hotspot in southwestern Western Australia. Across three representative scenarios of future climate change, we simulated migration of 100 Banksia (Proteaceae) species at a rate of 5 km decade−1 and compared projected impacts with those under the commonly applied, but acknowledged as inadequate, assumptions of ‘full-’ and ‘no-migration.’ Across all climate × migration scenarios, 66% of species were projected to decline, whereas only 6% were projected to expand or remain stable. Between 5% and 25% of species were projected to suffer range losses of 100% by 2080, depending mainly on climate scenario. Species losses were driven primarily by changes in current precipitation regimes, with the greatest losses of species projected to occur in a transition zone between wet coastal areas and interior arid regions and which is projected to become more arid in the future. Because the ranges of most species tended to collapse in all climate scenarios, we found that climate change impacts to flora of southwestern Western Australia may be large, even under optimistic assumptions regarding migration abilities. Taken together, our results suggest that the future of biodiversity in southwestern Western Australia may lie largely in the degree to which this hotspot experiences increased drought and in the ability of species to tolerate such decreases in precipitation. More broadly, our study is among a growing number of theoretical studies suggesting the impacts of future climate change on global biodiversity may be considerable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to better understand the relationship between reserve design and the species represented by such designs, we examined the effectiveness of the Western Australian reserve system for conserving angiosperm diversity, and examined the characteristics of those species conserved. We overlayed species distribution data for 14 plant lineages with the distribution of the reserve system (8.5% of the State's area) and identified the species that remained unprotected. We found that, depending upon the method employed, between 174 (5.7%) and 570 (18.7%) of species were not included within the reserve system. Two main unprotected regions were identified, one of which was also a centre of high diversity. Geographical range sizes of unprotected species were six times smaller than those species that were protected, while species richness of small-ranged endemic species coincided with general patterns of species richness. At the level of Western Australia's bioregions we found that conservation effectiveness was most dependent on characteristics of the reserve system rather than characteristics (size and positioning) of species ranges. At this scale, the most effective way to conserve more species in Western Australia would be to conserve more land, while conservation would be most successful in a uniformly dispersed reserve system. Our results highlight the fact that reserve systems may take on two design approaches based on scale--at continental scales, reserves should be clustered around the hotspots of endemic species, while within regions, an evenly distributed reserve system will most adequately sample species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to understand the dynamics of co-evolution it is important to consider spatial variation in interaction dynamics. We examined the relative importance of ant activity, diversity and species identity in an ant seed dispersal mutualism at local, regional and continental scales. We also studied the determinants of seed dispersal rates and dispersal distances at eight sites in the Eneabba sandplain (29.63 S, 115.22 E), western Australia to understand local variation in seed dispersal rate and distance. To test the generality of the conclusions derived from the eight local sites, we established 16 sites along a 1650-km transect in western Australia, covering 11° of latitude and a six-fold increase in rainfall, at which we sampled the ant assemblage, estimated ant species richness and ant activity and observed the removal rate of myrmecochorous seeds. We also assessed the importance of ant species identity at a continental scale via a review of studies carried out throughout Australia which examined ant seed dispersal. Among the eight sandplain shrubland sites, ant species identity, in particular the presence of one genus, Rhytidoponera, was associated with the most dispersal and above average dispersal distances. At the landscape scale, Rhytidoponera presence was the most important determinant of seed removal rate, while seed removal rate was negatively correlated with ant species richness and latitude. Most ant seed removal studies carried out throughout Australia reinforce our observations that Rhytidoponera species were particularly important seed dispersers. It is suggested that superficially diffuse mutualisms may depend greatly on the identity of particular partners. Even at large biogeographic scales, temporal and spatial variation in what are considered to be diffuse mutualisms may often be linked to variation in the abundance of particular partners, and be only weakly – or negatively – associated with the diversity of partners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. This paper describes spatial variation in density of a mutualist Hemiptera, and attempts to elucidate an understanding of the spatial variation in conditionality of its mutualism with ants. 2. Aggregations of the membracid treehopper, Campylenchia sp., occurred more frequently, and with higher number of individuals, in isolated trees as compared with their occurrence in the same tree species in wooded patches. 3. Using treehopper aggregations as the level of replication, there was a habitat × ant presence interaction associated with colony survival time. However, when the median survival time of all aggregations within each tree was used, only an additive effect of both habitat type and ant presence were apparent. This suggests that treehopper aggregations in some isolated trees experienced more benefit from ant presence than other trees. 4. The ant:treehopper ratio averaged over each tree was correlated with effect of ant presence on survivorship (survival time without ants/survival time with ants). Therefore, conditionality in the ant–membracid mutualism appears related to ant attendance level at the scale of individual trees. 5. Ant attendance at treehopper aggregations in isolated and matorral trees did not differ, and therefore there is no clear mechanism by which ants create the contrast in treehopper densities between the two habitat types. 6. The main force shaping initial treehopper densities in the two habitats is likely plant quality. Results suggest that growing situation (or more specifically plant health) is likely a good predictor of membracid density, while general ant activity within a tree is the best indicator of interaction strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reflects on the changes in the school system in the U.S., which take up the tasks and duties of traditional home training that result to change children's home relationship. Looking into the changes in the social, industrial, and political world, the author noted that with such changes, the state had assumed to train the youth or that the home demanded that the state take more intimate or direct control of the youth

The article presents a perspective on topics related to the biodiversity of ants. According to the author, he benefits of increasing ant activity on predation are well documented, and appear to apply to most settings. He added that prey-encounter rates increase as a positive function of ant activity.

The article reflects on the valuation of one's quality of work, particularly those who are in the teaching profession in the U.S. According to the author, as no one can properly estimate one's self, the value of teacher's power and influence for good and the measurement of the value of the product can only be assessed properly through other person, noting that one cannot measure himself with regard to the immaterial product which is the fruit of one's labor.

The author reflects on a meeting of the National Educational Association which was held in San Francisco, California in 1888. T. H. Goodman, general passenger agent of Southern Pacific road, played a significant role in the well-arranged railroad accommodation during the event. The city raised $31,000 to provide entertainment for the association.

The article presents a speech by Aaron Gove, superintendent of schools in Denver, Colorado, delivered at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association in Boston, Massachusetts. He discusses the supply of teachers in city schools. He mentions the sources of supply of teachers. He cites the reasons behind the reluctance of teachers to live in another city.

The article focuses on the introduction of drawing study into the educational schoolwork in the U.S. The author believes that drawing study enables the students to communicate each others thought as well as appropriate others person's thoughts to one's apprehension. Moreover, the author explains that the teaching drawing also enables students to observe and critic his work which leads to establishing proper standard of taste in art.

The article discusses the order satisfactory of schoolroom in the U.S. The satisfactory order in one room with a teacher of a given temperament is different from that in an adjoining room with another and quite different teacher. Schoolroom condition without regard to the pupils for surroundings and environments much affect upon the deportment is the first requisite. A room should be in good order so that pupils feel physically, mentally and morally as comfortable.

The article focuses on the changes in the life of U.S. citizens that show how the school has been replacing the home. Changes include the rise of paternalism in the country which has reached over to the schools, the assigning of child training to the school which was formerly done at home and the disappearance of severe religious and effective discipline of the early American home.

The article discusses the responsibilities of city superintendent of schools in the United States. A superintendent must have the necessary educational preparation, such as teaching experiences in schools. He must know the principles of the teaching profession. He must be able to assist in managing the school and in training teachers.

Discusses the lack of professional city superintendents in the U.S. that are trained for the work of public-school supervision. Factors that influenced the job of school superintendents; Misconceptions on the characteristics of superintendents; Challenges faced by school superintendents.

The article presents the fifth part in a series of suggested lessons in the study and teaching of astronomical geography. As a follow-up to the previous lesson on the earth's axis, the author has devoted this article to the effects of the different positions of the earth on the changing of seasons. The discussion focuses on the cause of seasonal changes and the varying length of days and nights throughout the year in the different parts of the globe.

The article focuses on several proofs that the shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. The degree of the latitude of the earth is found by actual measurement to be longer toward the poles than it is in the neighborhood of the equator. Other planets on the solar system are seen to be oblate spheroids. A revolution in the axis of the earth must have given it the form of an oblate spheroid.

The article presents a guide to lessons in astronomical geography for teachers in Denver, Colorado. The key factor to consider when teaching the lessons to pupils is considered. An approach to teaching the concept of earth as a sphere is described. Definitions of terms related to mathematical geography are outlined. A list of inferences about the surface of the earth is provided.

A common approach for analysing geographical variation in biodiversity involves using linear models to determine the rate at which species similarity declines with geographical or environmental distance and comparing this rate among regions, taxa or communities. Implicit in this approach are weakly justified assumptions that the rate of species turnover remains constant along gradients and that this rate can therefore serve as a means to compare ecological systems. We use generalized dissimilarity modelling, a novel method that accommodates variation in rates of species turnover along gradients and between different gradients, to compare environmental and spatial controls on the floras of two regions with contrasting evolutionary and climatic histories: southwest Australia and northern Europe. We find stronger signals of climate history in the northern European flora and demonstrate that variation in rates of species turnover is persistent across regions, taxa and different gradients. Such variation may represent an important but often overlooked component of biodiversity that complicates comparisons of distance–decay relationships and underscores the importance of using methods that accommodate the curvilinear relationships expected when modelling beta diversity. Determining how rates of species turnover vary along and between gradients is relevant to understanding the sensitivity of ecological systems to environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on manual education. It has been claimed that a boy will be a more nearly complete man if he can perform different industrial activities such as shoemaking and welding.

Offers observation on the lack of moral teaching in the U.S. Number of hours a week spent by pupils in school; View on the morals of the pupil in school; Importance of the cooperation between teacher and parent.

The article discusses the responsibility of both school superintendents and teachers in the school system in the U.S. It is emphasized that the functions of both professions must have limitations to maintain good relationship and to be effective in managing as well as in facilitating the school effectively. The duty of school administrators is to set rules that are to be followed by teachers while teachers are responsible of applying this regulation into practice.

The article discusses the development of schools in the U.S. as a meeting place for social community of the people. According to the author, the school became a place in which people make conversation on many issues that confront the growth of American neighborhood. It is also a way that violent discussions which are administered by partisans and extremists are being avoided.

The author comments on the efficiency of opening school savings banks for children. He believes that it will be added responsibility to the teachers to open and run cash accounts for pupils. They tend to place that which belongs to mature life into the life of the child. The advantage of these savings banks is for these children to save. But it also teaches hoarding. He thinks that children should learn to be generous because these children are at first selfish.

The article focuses on the resolutions offered at the meeting of the organization of schools of Cleveland, at Los Angeles, California in 1899. The author describes the character of Andrew J. Rickoff, former superintendent of Cleveland. It has been that there are no means of knowing how the health of Rickoff was affected by his discharge from the city schools of Cleveland. However, it was somewhat due to the ingratitude expressed by the community towards his efforts for the schools.

The article reminds the teachers of Colorado about the necessity of careful personal inquiry in order to protect themselves from the impositions of professional unprincipled agents that result from the sudden and incalculable acquisition of wealth from gold and silver mining. Unprincipled agents throughout the country have been luring them to invest in stocks of the mining sector. Though it is good to invest in legitimate mining, it must first be made sure that the agents are genuine.

Information about several papers discussed at the meeting of the National Education Association (NEA) was held on February 19-21, 1895 in Cleveland, Ohio. A. S. Draper, representative of a committee appointed by the department of superintendents of the NEA has prepared a paper which examines the status and the administration of the city school system. Moreover, great interests on superintendent's administration of the school system depend on their successful management.

Presents a letter to the editor about a suggestion to publish an index of the "Journal of Education."

The author reflects on the need for teachers to be appointed outside of the schools to which they belonged as pupils in the U.S. He asserts that schools could benefit from a system of exchange between states, cities and districts in spite of the fact that the management could experience conflicting opinions, variations in the solving of practical questions and adverse criticisms.