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Associate's degree completion is billed as the quickest way to upskill the workforce and a ticket to the middle class. Yet 35 million Americans leave college without a degree. Black and Hispanic students are more likely than White and Asian students to leave college. We examined whether economic benefits differ between those whose highest level of education is "some college, no degree (SCND)" compared to an associate's degree by analyzing interaction effects among race/ethnicity, sex, citizenship, and nativity. Using data from the Current Population Survey 2019 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, we employed regressions to examine heterogeneity in economic rewards. We also used propensity score matching to estimate causal treatment effects using observational data. On average, associate's workers reaped more economic rewards than SCND workers. In almost every category, the advantage of completing the associate's degree was lost when the worker held at least one socially disadvantaged identity. Economic disadvantage was multiplied for some workers who had more than one disadvantaged identity. Our findings support the economic value of completing an associate's degree and unmask the disparate labor market outcomes for workers of diverse races/ethnicities, sexes, and nationalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The techniques used to interrogate individuals suspected of a crime can profoundly impact their decisions to confess, cooperate, or disclose information. Research using different methods suggests that two prevailing interrogation approaches—accusatorial and information-gathering—differentially impact interrogation outcomes. However, confession, cooperation, and information disclosure are ultimately the suspected person's decision, yet few studies directly examine their perspectives about how interrogation techniques affect their decisions, and none examine a U.S. sample. This study assessed how interrogation strategies characterized by humanity, rapport, confrontation, and dominance/control predicted interrogation outcomes in a sample of 249 individuals incarcerated in two U.S. jails. Respondents who reported experiencing humane strategies were more likely to confess, cooperate completely, and disclose incriminating information. Dominance/control-oriented strategies predicted partial confession (but not cooperation or disclosure), and rapport-based and confrontational techniques did not predict outcomes. Findings highlight humane interrogation strategies as likely the most productive strategies to adopt in criminal interrogations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A policy's general deterrent effect requires would‐be offenders to be aware of the policy, yet many adolescents do not know they could be registered as sex offenders, and even adolescents who do know may still commit registerable sexual offenses. We tested whether peer influences shape the perceived costs/benefits of certain sexual offenses and, subsequently, registration policy's general deterrent potential in a sample of policy‐aware adolescents. The more adolescents believed their peers approve of sexting of nude images, the more likely they were to have sexted. For forcible touching, having more positive peer expectations about sex and perceiving forcible touching as more prevalent among peers related to adolescents' likelihood of engaging in that behavior. Perceiving registration as a possible consequence was unrelated to sexual offending. Findings highlight the nuanced roles peers play in adolescent sexual decision‐making and support emerging evidence that juvenile registration policy has limited general deterrent efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This mixed-method exploratory inductive study examined incarcerated youths' and staff members' perceptions of a new community-focused therapeutic model in a large youth prison. Via 18 focus groups (N = 141) and facility-wide surveys (N = 248), both youth and staff shared perceptions of specific structural components of the model designed to change their relationship to one another, such as consistent staffing, higher staff-resident ratios, and program features designed to enhance rapport. Both groups also provided rich descriptions of the altered interpersonal dynamics related to connection and caring, two of the five C's of Positive Youth Development (PYD), that were facilitated through those structural changes. Findings suggest the model's intentional redefinition of resident-staff relationships directly contributed to meaningful resident and staff experiences. Perceptions of those relationships—rarely explored in the extant literature—were examined and illustrated through focus group data. This study illuminates the subjective experiences of both groups as they put the model into practice and reveals key insights about therapeutic correctional programs based on PYD in secure facilities that have important implications for juvenile correctional theory, research, practice, and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have examined associations between treatment orientation and staff outcomes such as stress, burnout and turnover. However, existing operationalizations of treatment orientation are inconsistent, and the construct is often measured dichotomously, which fails to capture the complexity of staff experiences and perceptions. Our mixed method study of a newly implemented therapeutic program in a juvenile correctional facility identified multiple factors that contextualize staff support for the organization's treatment orientation. First, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) of staff survey items identified factors that influenced support for the therapeutic model. Some staff liked particular features of the program, and some assessed its observed impact on resident behaviors and outcomes. Staff support was constrained by their perceptions of how the program was implemented, including the speed and consistency of implementation and adequacy of staffing. Both staff support for the program and perceptions of effective program implementation were related to supervisor support. Second, qualitative analysis of data from focus groups with staff illuminated preferences for a particular treatment orientation. Staff described how attempts to separate treatment from security in implementing a therapeutic approach both failed to provide a safe environment for residents and staff and contributed to role ambiguity and role conflict among staff. Staff also shared preferences for particular program components and perceptions that the therapeutic model was not appropriate for all residents, particularly those with blended sentences. The study's findings have implications for future research, theory, and practice related to juvenile justice reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Content analysis using established media frames was conducted on newspaper articles from 6 of the top 10 circulated newspapers spanning a 4-year period from May 2012 to May 2016. A total of 819 newspaper articles from the Chicago Tribune , Los Angeles Times , New York Times , USA Today , Wall Street Journal , and Washington Post were coded using five media frames: conflict, human interest, attribution of responsibility, morality/accountability, and economics. Results show an increase in articles reporting on body-worn cameras (BWCs) and police following the events of August 2014 in Ferguson, MO, and that conflict (57%) was the most prevalent frame, followed by attribution of responsibility (52%), and morality/accountability (52%). Usage of the five media frames varied significantly by newspaper outlet. Findings inform police practitioners how newspapers are framing BWCs, allowing police departments to better manage public expectations of the technology and address officer concerns regarding media coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bullying and school crime are important social problems that are receiving increased attention by scholars and policy makers. However, several critical questions remain unaddressed. First, does the public perceive bullying as a serious problem and judge schools—primary, secondary, and postsecondary—as safe or unsafe? Second, does the public use a "bullying lens" to judge school safety—that is, do citizens understand bullying as a serious threat to students' well-being? Third, are there racial differences in these perceptions? Prior research identifies racial differences in the prevalence of bullying, as well as in students' views of school safety and citizens' fear of crime. Similar racial gaps may characterize public perceptions of bullying and school safety. This study begins to illuminate answers to these questions by analyzing data from a representative sample of Virginians. Multivariate regression analyses produce several notable findings. First, we find that members of the public believe bullying in schools is an increasingly serious problem, and their perceptions of bullying influence their judgments of whether schools and colleges/universities are safe. Second, Black members of the public are more likely than persons from other racial and ethnic backgrounds to perceive that bullying is increasing and is a serious problem in schools, and, in turn, to judge that schools and universities are less safe. Our results indicate that members of the public see bullying as a principal threat to student safety. They suggest there is a strong reservoir of public support for antibullying initiatives and, more broadly, efforts to increase student safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sex offender registration laws are widely implemented, increasingly restrictive, and intended to serve both specific and general deterrent functions. Most states have some form of policy mechanism to place adolescents on sex offender registries, yet it remains unclear whether adolescents possess the requisite policy awareness to be deterred from sexual offending. This study examined awareness of sex offender registration as a potential sanction and its cross-sectional association with engagement in several registrable sexual behaviors (sexting, indecent exposure, sexual solicitation, and forcible touching) in a community sample of 144 adolescents. Results revealed that many adolescents were unaware that these behaviors could result in sex offender registration. Moreover, over one-third of adolescents who incorrectly believed that youth cannot be registered were highly confident in their answers. Notably, nearly half the sample had engaged in at least one of the four registrable behaviors we assessed, and policy-aware youth were just as likely as others to have engaged in those registrable sexual behaviors. Our findings cast doubt on arguments that juvenile sex offender registration serves as a general deterrent, adding to a growing body of literature suggesting that the policy is ineffective and in need of reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few studies have examined police interrogation strategies from suspects' perspectives, yet assessing suspects' views about interviewer approaches could provide important insights regarding confession decision making. The current study is the first American survey to assess a diverse sample of adult jail inmates' views on police interrogation tactics and approaches. The study explored US jail inmates' (N = 418) perspectives about how police should conduct interrogations. Potential dimensionality among 26 survey items pertaining to police tactics was examined using exploratory factor analysis. Group differences according to demographic and criminological variables were also explored. Four factors emerged, conceptualized as Dominance/Control, Humanity/Integrity, Sympathy/Perspective-Taking, and Rapport. Respondents most strongly endorsed Humanity/Integrity and Rapport strategies and were unsupportive of approaches involving Dominance/Control. Gender differences emerged for Dominance/Control and Humanity/Integrity, and Black respondents were more likely to value strategies related to Sympathy/Perspective-Taking. Suspects endorsed interrogation strategies characterized by respect, dignity, voice, and a commitment to the truth; they reported aversions to the false evidence ploy and approaches involving aggression. Overall, results from this incarcerated sample suggest that interviewees may be more responsive to rapport-building, non-adversarial strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined how detained youths’ (N = 98) actual experiences with the law, including frequency of contact with the police and knowledge about the Miranda warning and interrogation practices, relate to their perceptions of support, fairness, and trust toward the police. Results show that more police contacts were associated with lower perceived obligation to obey the law and higher cynicism toward the law and also moderated the relationships between age and police legitimacy and race/ethnicity and police legitimacy and procedural justice. Comprehension of the Miranda warning was associated with lower perceived obligation to obey the law and procedural justice, and knowledge about police interrogation practices was associated with lower perceived police legitimacy. These findings suggest the potential of legal socialization as a mechanism for intervention among offending adolescents; programs that promote positive youth–police interactions may help minimize negative attitudes and foster perceptions of trust and fairness toward the police. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some states and police agencies require youth to consult with parents before or during interrogation by police, yet these policies rely on the untested assumption that parents themselves are knowledgeable about police interrogation practices and youths’ rights. This study assessed knowledge of, and attitudes about, juvenile interrogations in a sample of parents (N = 294) recruited from urban locales. On average, parents correctly answered fewer than half of the questions about juvenile interrogation practices; knowledge about parental notification procedures was especially poor. At the same time, parents strongly endorsed youths’ rights to support (including support from parents) during police questioning contexts and only moderately endorsed youths’ decision-making autonomy, even for older youth who are legally adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The approximately 20% turnover rate among correctional officers in juvenile facilities adds undue financial and morale costs to facilities that already face budget constraints. This study used exit interviews (N = 173) from 2012 to 2015 from a state juvenile justice agency to examine factors impacting voluntary turnover decisions among correctional and non-correctional employees. Juvenile correctional officers reported lower levels of job satisfaction and voluntarily left the organization at a higher rate than non-correctional employees. Employees also significantly differed in their reasons to leave; correctional staff primarily cited concerns over safety and a desire to return to school, whereas non-correctional staff were more likely to leave due to retirement. Exit surveys were a valuable tool that allowed the authors to gain quantitative and qualitative insight into retention and turnover for juvenile justice agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite empirical progress in documenting and classifying various interrogation techniques, very little is known about how police are trained in interrogation methods, how frequently they use various techniques, and whether they employ techniques differentially with adult versus juvenile suspects. This study reports the nature and extent of formal (e.g., Reid Technique. PEACE, HUMINT) and informal interrogation training as well as self-reported technique usage in a diverse national sample {N = 340) of experienced American police officers. Officers were trained in a variety of different techniques ranging from comparatively benign pre-interrogation strategies (e.g.. building rapport, observing body language or speech patterns) to more psychologically coercive techniques (e.g., blaming the victim, discouraging denials). Over half the sample reported being trained to use psychologically coercive techniques with both adults and juveniles. The majority (91%) receive informal, "on the job" interrogation training. Technique usage patterns indicate a spectrum of psychological intensity where information-gathering approaches were used most frequently and high-pressure tactics less frequently. Reid-trained officers (56%) were significantly more likely than officers without Reid training to use pre-interrogation and manipulation techniques. Across all analyses and techniques, usage patterns were identical for adult and juvenile suspects, suggesting that police interrogate youth in the same manner as adults. Overall, results suggest that training in specific interrogation methods is strongly associated with usage. Findings underscore the need for more law enforcement interrogation training in general, especially with juvenile suspects, and highlight the value of training as an avenue for reducing interrogation-induced miscarriages of justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public policy in the area of youth crime has periodically shifted back and forth between punishment and child saving. Generally, scholars believe that public opinion and youth justice policies are linked. It is also believed that crime salience—fear and perceived risk of victimization—is linked to public opinion about youth sanctions. To test these widely held beliefs, this study examines public opinion about youth justice policies by exploring the impact of crime salience on public support for child saving versus youth punishment. This study expands on prior literature by also considering the public’s willingness to pay (WTP) for the youth justice policies they prefer. Results indicate that fear increases punitiveness, WTP for youth justice policies generally, and, more specifically, the WTP for youth punishment. However, fear does not affect the public’s WTP for child saving. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though laboratory and self-report research proliferates on youths’ Miranda comprehension and reasoning, little is known about how Miranda actually takes place inside the juvenile interrogation room. This study is among the first to present data on the Miranda processes and outcomes that occur in actual juvenile interrogations. Fifty-seven electronically recorded police interrogations with juvenile suspects were coded using software designed especially for observational research; this article examines a subset of those interrogations (N = 28) that contained a filmed Miranda component. Key variables include the manner of Miranda delivery, youths’ behavioral indicators of comprehension, and Miranda waiver rates. Additionally, the language used to present Miranda warnings to juvenile suspects was transcribed and analyzed. Results indicate that Miranda delivery typically occurred in a neutral manner, immediately upon interview commencement or after a brief period of booking questions. Miranda warnings were presented in various formats (verbal, written, and combination), and youth-specific modifications to the standard Miranda language were uncommon. The Miranda waiver rate in our subsample was 90%. The specific Miranda language used in these interrogations read approximately at a seventh-grade reading level. Implications of Miranda delivery, waiver, and readability are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although empirical attention to police interrogation has gained traction in recent years, comparatively few studies have examined interrogation of juvenile suspects, and virtually none have examined actual interrogations. Despite a growing literature on youths' interrogation-related capacities, we still know very little about what actually transpires when police question youth. The present study examines electronically recorded police interviews with juveniles to describe the characteristics, processes, and outcomes that occur in actual juvenile interrogations, including interview duration, individuals present, and confessions. Fifty-seven electronic recordings from 17 police departments were analyzed using observational research software. The median juvenile interrogation lasted 46 min, though the range was extensive (6 min to nearly 5 hr). Youth frequently submitted to questioning without a parent or advocate present, and disruptions to the interview process were common. Interrogation outcomes varied and included full confessions, partially incriminating admissions, and denials of guilt. Results from this study provide context for interrogation research using other methods and suggest that youth may frequently consent to interrogation in the absence of important legal protections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines whether parents have the prerequisite knowledge about police interrogation that would allow them to compensate for youths’ knowledge deficits, protect their interests, and buffer against their vulnerability to coercion. A racially diverse urban/suburban convenience sample of 77 11- to 13-year-olds, 46 14- to 15-year-olds, and 47 16- to 17-year-olds and their parents completed a semi-structured interview on knowledge of legal rights and police practices. Results show that parents know more than younger adolescents about components of the Miranda warning and its behavioral implications but do not necessarily know more about police strategy or the parameters of parental protection. Age and socioeconomic status were associated with youths’ risk for poor knowledge. Among parents, IQ, race, and the child’s age predicted risk classification. Parent IQ, socioeconomic status, and youths’ justice experience, race, and age predicted whether families were classified as at risk for poor knowledge. The results question legal assumptions about parents’ capacity for protecting youths’ interests without intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]