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The biomethane potential of insect frass and leachates from waste (larvae feedstock) stockpile was evaluated. Frass was derived from a black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) operation that uses a fruit and vegetable waste diet. The two waste streams were characterized and the results of their compositional, proximate, and ultimate analysis were used in estimating methane yields from these materials. The estimated biomethane potential (BMP) of the frass ranged 149–275 L/kgVS depending on the calculation method used. This result compares well with that of empirical studies for cow manure whose BMP ranges 110–275 L/kgVS. Cow manure is the most popular biogas feedstock globally. Leachates reported an estimated BMP of 150 L/kgCOD. We conclude that it may be technically feasible to produce biogas from BSFL frass and from fruit and vegetable waste leachates. However, standard BMP experiments and semicontinuous pilot studies are still necessary before commercialization of these findings. These extra tests are executed to validate these findings and ascertain the life cycle attribute and long‐term process stability and hence determine the economics of using these potential substrates for biogas production as a strategy to implementing circularity in the fruit and vegetable industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biodegradability of water hyacinth for biogas and biofertilizer production was studied under mesophilic conditions. The effects of water hyacinth pretreatments were also included in this investigation. It was found that water hyacinth has a low biodegradability of 27% when monodigested, while in a 3:1 ratio with cow manure, the biodegradability increases to 46%. At this elevated biodegradability, the water hyacinth biomethane potential was 185 LCH4/kgVS, while that of cow manure was 216 LCH4/kgVS. The Gompertz kinetic model had superior parameters than the logistic model for most of the water hyacinth–cow manure combined substrate digestion. Based on the Gompertz model, the lag phase and daily maximum methane production rate were 5.5 days and 22.9 mL/day, respectively, for the 3:1 codigestion (R2 of 0.99). These values were 6.7 days and 15.2 mL/day, respectively, in the case of water hyacinth monodigestion (R2 = 0.996). The dominant microbial species detected in the digestates were Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. A few microbial species were indigenous to water hyacinth, but more diverse consortia, which are key to efficient substrate biodegradation, came from cow manure. The digestate contained ammonium nitrogen at 68 mg/kg with phosphorous and potassium at 73 and 424 mg/kg, respectively. Nitrogen was lower but phosphorous and potassium were comparable to previously studied digestates of other substrates. Only water hyacinth pretreated by aerobic composting was proven to unlock a higher methane yield that matched the 3:1 codigestion with cow manure. Other pretreatments induced better biodegradation performance than that observed in untreated water hyacinth but these improvements were not as good as that of the 3:1 codigestion scheme. It was concluded that water hyacinth sourced from the Hartbeespoort Dam could be treated by anaerobic digestion to recover biogas and biofertilizer. However, more experiments are required to fully understand and harness the optimisation opportunities available in applying this technology to manage water hyacinths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste management strategies specified in the hierarchy of waste management were evaluated by applying a Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) technique called the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to choose a strategy for managing Johannesburg (JHB) city's food waste. Under the different weighting scenarios for the evaluation criteria considered in this AHP, the recovery strategy scored an average of 41% while other strategies each scored 33%, 29% and 22% for prevention and reduction, treatment and disposal, re-use and recycle, respectively. Optimisation of resource recovery strategies from food waste is recommended for further consideration and investigation by the JHB municipality in its attempt to promote a circular economy and surmount food waste hurdles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of Toxoplasma gondii genotypes is beneficial for detecting strains linked to increased disease severity and uncovering the processes involved in the transmission and distribution of this zoonotic parasite. A systematic review of literature was conducted to investigate the present status of T. gondii genetic diversity in African countries and among host species on the continent. Data from the results in the included studies were sorted, reviewed and descriptively analysed using tables, graphs and maps. Results indicate that there is a relative amount of genetic diversity with a clear difference in the population structure between geographical regions and the propensity for unique and regional genotypes to be predominant in tropical rainforest biomes, near the equator. From a clinical perspective, connections between specific T. gondii genotypes and disease manifestations were found. Theories are outlined on the dissemination of African T. gondii genotypes to other continents. The overrepresentation of samples from one geographical area and dissimilar genotyping methodologies creates challenges when concluding on the genetic diversity of T. gondii in Africa. The need for uniform genotyping methods with a continent-wide sampling of an extensive host range involving humans, domestic animals and wildlife is emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is characterized as a holoendemic malaria area with the main vectors being Anopheles funestus and members of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Due to political instability and socio-economic challenges in the region, knowledge of insecticide resistance status and resistance mechanisms in these vectors is limited. Mosquitoes were collected from a mining site in the north-eastern part of the country and, following identification, were subjected to extensive testing for the target-site and biochemical basis of resistance. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to assess a suite of 10 genes frequently involved in pyrethroid and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) resistance in An. gambiae females and males. In An. funestus, gene expression microarray analysis was carried out on female mosquitoes. Results: In both species, deltamethrin resistance was recorded along with high resistance and suspected resistance to DDT in An. gambiae and An. funestus, respectively. A total of 85% of An. gambiae carried the kdr mutations as either homozygous resistant (RR) (L1014S, L1014F or both) or heterozygous (RS), however only 3% carried the rdl mutant allele (RS) and no ace-1 mutations were recorded. Synergist assays indicated a strong role for P450s in deltamethrin resistance in both species. In An. gambiae, analysis of transcription levels showed that the glutathione-S-transferase, GSTS1-2, produced the highest fold change in expression (7.6-fold in females and 31-fold in males) followed by GSTE2, thioredoxin peroxidase (TPX2), and cytochrome oxidases (CYP6M2 and CYP6P1). All other genes tested produced fold change values below 2. Microarray analysis revealed significant over-transcription of cuticular proteins as well as CYP6M7, CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b in insecticide resistant An. funestus. Conclusions: These data show that high levels of deltamethrin resistance in the main malaria vector species, conferred by enzymatic detoxification, are present in the DRC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The SEMOS gold mine's malaria vector control programme forms part of the company's community responsibilities with the programme being managed by the mine's health department since 2005. Methods: Data from approximately 10 years of malaria vector control for the Sadiola District are given: namely malaria vector control methods used by the control programme, positive malaria case data and entomological surveys from 2006, 2011 and 2014. Results: Distribution of pyrethroid-treated bed nets and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with deltamethrin were implemented by the programme from 2005-2011. No IRS was done in 2012. Spraying with the organophosphate, pirimiphos-methyl resumed in 2013 and 2014 and was followed by a 70% drop in malaria cases in 2014. Anopheles arabiensis was the major vector present in 2006 and was susceptible to deltamethrin. In 2011 and 2014, An. gambiae s.s. was the most abundant vector with deltamethrin 24 h mortality of 68% and 19%, respectively. Conclusions: Resistance to the pyrethroid deltamethrin has increased in An. gambiae s.s. since 2011, possibly due to the scale-up in distribution of long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets. Resistance management strategies are recommended using different classes of insecticides for IRS, and including the distribution of new-generation bed nets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Two mitochondrial DNA clades have been described in Anopheles funestus populations from southern Africa. Clade I is common across the continent while clade II is known only from Mozambique and Madagascar. The specific biological status of these clades is at present unknown. We investigated the possible role that each clade might play in the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum and the insecticide resistance status of An. funestus from Zimbabwe and Zambia. Methods Mosquitoes were collected inside houses from Nchelenge District, Zambia and Honde Valley, Zimbabwe in 2013 and 2014. WHO susceptibility tests, synergist assays and resistance intensity tests were conducted on wild females and progeny of wild females. ELISA was used to detect Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein. Specimens were identified to species and mtDNA clades using standard molecular methods. Results The Zimbabwean samples were all clade I while the Zambian population comprised 80% clade I and 20% clade II in both years of collection. ELISA tests gave an overall infection rate of 2.3% and 2.1% in 2013, and 3.5% and 9.2% in 2014 for Zimbabwe and Zambia respectively. No significant difference was observed between the clades. All populations were resistant to pyrethroids and carbamates but susceptible to organochlorines and organophosphates. Synergist assays indicated that pyrethroid resistance is mediated by cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases. Resistance intensity tests showed high survival rates after 8-hrs continuous exposure to pyrethroids but exposure to bendiocarb gave the same results as the susceptible control. Conclusions This is the first record of An. funestus mtDNA clade II occurring in Zambia. No evidence was found to suggest that the clades are markers of biologically separate populations. The ability of An. funestus to withstand prolonged exposure to pyrethroids has serious implications for the use of these insecticides, either through LLINs or IRS, in southern Africa in general and resistance management strategies should be urgently implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Two mitochondrial DNA clades have been described in Anopheles funestus populations from southern Africa. Clade I is common across the continent while clade II is known only from Mozambique and Madagascar. The specific biological status of these clades is at present unknown. We investigated the possible role that each clade might play in the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum and the insecticide resistance status of An. funestus from Zimbabwe and Zambia. Methods: Mosquitoes were collected inside houses from Nchelenge District, Zambia and Honde Valley, Zimbabwe in 2013 and 2014. WHO susceptibility tests, synergist assays and resistance intensity tests were conducted on wild females and progeny of wild females. ELISA was used to detect Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein. Specimens were identified to species and mtDNA clades using standard molecular methods. Results: The Zimbabwean samples were all clade I while the Zambian population comprised 80% clade I and 20% clade II in both years of collection. ELISA tests gave an overall infection rate of 2.3% and 2.1% in 2013, and 3.5% and 9.2% in 2014 for Zimbabwe and Zambia respectively. No significant difference was observed between the clades. All populations were resistant to pyrethroids and carbamates but susceptible to organochlorines and organophosphates. Synergist assays indicated that pyrethroid resistance is mediated by cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenases. Resistance intensity tests showed high survival rates after 8-hrs continuous exposure to pyrethroids but exposure to bendiocarb gave the same results as the susceptible control. Conclusions: This is the first record of An. funestus mtDNA clade II occurring in Zambia. No evidence was found to suggest that the clades are markers of biologically separate populations. The ability of An. funestus to withstand prolonged exposure to pyrethroids has serious implications for the use of these insecticides, either through LLINs or IRS, in southern Africa in general and resistance management strategies should be urgently implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Malaria control programmes across Africa and beyond are facing increasing insecticide resistance in the major anopheline vectors. In order to preserve or prolong the effectiveness of the main malaria vector interventions, up-to-date and easily accessible insecticide resistance data that are interpretable at operationally-relevant scales are critical. Herein we introduce and demonstrate the usefulness of an online mapping tool, IR Mapper. Methods A systematic search of published, peer-reviewed literature was performed and Anopheles insecticide susceptibility and resistance mechanisms data were extracted and added to a database after a two-level verification process. IR Mapper (www.irmapper.com) was developed using the ArcGIS for JavaScript Application Programming Interface and ArcGIS Online platform for exploration and projection of these data. Results Literature searches yielded a total of 4,084 susceptibility data points for 1,505 populations, and 2,097 resistance mechanisms data points for 1,000 populations of Anopheles spp. collected via recommended WHO methods from 54 countries between 1954 and 2012. For the Afrotropical region, data were most abundant for populations of An. gambiae, and pyrethroids and DDT were more commonly used in susceptibility assays (51.1 and 26.8% of all reports, respectively) than carbamates and organophosphates. Between 2001 and 2012, there was a clear increase in prevalence and distribution of confirmed resistance of An. gambiae s.l. to pyrethroids (from 41 to 87% of the mosquito populations tested) and DDT (from 64 to 91%) throughout the Afrotropical region. Metabolic resistance mechanisms were detected in western and eastern African populations and the two kdr mutations (L1014S and L1014F) were widespread. For An. funestus s.l., relatively few populations were tested, although in 2010-2012 resistance was reported in 50% of 10 populations tested. Maps are provided to illustrate the use of IR Mapper and the distribution of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in Africa. Conclusions The increasing pyrethroid and DDT resistance in Anopheles in the Afrotropical region is alarming. Urgent attention should be afforded to testing An. funestus populations for metabolic resistance mechanisms. IR Mapper is a useful tool for investigating temporal and spatial trends in Anopheles resistance to support the pragmatic use of insecticidal interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pyrethroid resistance has been well documented in Anopheles arabiensis, one of the major African malaria vectors, and the predominant malaria vector in South Africa. Methods: In this study, the genetic basis of pyrethroid resistance in a selected laboratory strain of An. arabiensis from South Africa was investigated using a custom-made microarray, known as the An. gambiae detoxification chip. Results: A large number of P450 genes were over-transcribed, as well as a suite of redox genes and glutathione S-transferases. The five genes that showed the highest level of gene transcription when compared with an insecticide susceptible strain were: CYP6AG2, CYPZ1, TPX2, CYPZ2 and CYP6P1. Conclusions: Permethrin resistance in South African An. arabiensis is associated with increased transcription of multiple genes, and a large proportion of these genes were also previously recorded as over-transcribed in another An. arabiensis strain selected for resistance to DDT with cross-resistance to deltamethrin. The deltamethrin resistance developed de novo in the DDT-selected strain and is most likely due to increased transcription of those genes associated with DDT resistance. However, of particular interest was the fact that the strain selected for resistance to pyrethroids did not develop de novo resistance to DDT. These differences are compared and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: The use of insecticides to control malaria vectors is essential to reduce the prevalence of malaria and as a result, the development of insecticide resistance in vector populations is of major concern. Anopheles arabiensis is one of the main African malaria vectors and insecticide resistance in this species has been reported in a number of countries. The aim of this study was to investigate the detoxification enzymes that are involved in An. arabiensis resistance to DDT and pyrethroids. Methods: The detoxification enzyme profiles were compared between two DDT selected, insecticide resistant strains of An. arabiensis, one from South Africa and one from Sudan, using the An. gambiae detoxification chip, a boutique microarray based on the major classes of enzymes associated with metabolism and detoxification of insecticides. Synergist assays were performed in order to clarify the roles of over-transcribed detoxification genes in the observed resistance phenotypes. In addition, the presence of kdr mutations in the colonies under investigation was determined. Results: The microarray data identifies several genes over-transcribed in the insecticide selected South African strain, while in the Sudanese population, only one gene, CYP9L1, was found to be over-transcribed. The outcome of the synergist experiments indicate that the over-transcription of detoxification enzymes is linked to deltamethrin resistance, while DDT and permethrin resistance are mainly associated with the presence of the L1014F kdr mutation. Conclusions: These data emphasise the complexity associated with resistance phenotypes and suggest that specific insecticide resistance mechanisms cannot be extrapolated to different vector populations of the same species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: New products aimed at augmenting or replacing chemical insecticides must have operational profiles that include both high efficacy in reducing vector numbers and/or blocking parasite transmission and be long lasting following application. Research aimed at developing fungal spores as a biopesticide for vector control have shown considerable potential yet have not been directly assessed for their viability after long-term storage or following application in the field. Methods: Spores from a single production run of the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana were dried and then stored under refrigeration at 7°C. After 585 days these spores were sub-sampled and placed at either 22°C, 26°C or 32°C still sealed in packaging (closed storage) or in open beakers and exposed to the 80% relative humidity of the incubator they were kept in. Samples were subsequently taken from these treatments over a further 165 days to assess viability. Spores from the same production run were also used to test their persistence following application to three different substrates, clay, cement and wood, using a hand held sprayer. The experiments were conducted at two different institutes with one using adult female Anopheles stephensi and the other adult female Anopheles gambiae. Mosquitoes were exposed to the treated substrates for one hour before being removed and their survival monitored for the next 14 days. Assays were performed at monthly intervals over a maximum seven months. Results: Spore storage under refrigeration resulted in no loss of spore viability over more than two years. Spore viability of those samples kept under open and closed storage was highly dependent on the incubation temperature with higher temperatures decreasing viability more rapidly than cooler temperatures. Mosquito survival following exposure was dependent on substrate type. Spore persistence on the clay substrate was greatest achieving 80% population reduction for four months against An. stephensi and for at least five months against Anopheles gambiae. Cement and wood substrates had more variable mortality with the highest spore persistence being two to three months for the two substrates respectively. Conclusions: Spore shelf-life under refrigeration surpassed the standard two year shelf-life expected of a mosquito control product. Removal to a variety of temperatures under either closed or open storage indicated that samples sent out from refrigeration should be deployed rapidly in control operations to avoid loss of viability. Spore persistence following application onto clay surfaces was comparable to a number of chemical insecticides in common use. Persistence on cement and wood was shorter but in one assay still comparable to some organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides. Optimized formulations could be expected to improve spore persistence still further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapidly emerging insecticide resistance is creating an urgent need for new active ingredients to control the adult mosquitoes that vector malaria. Biopesticides based on the spores of entomopathogenic fungi have shown considerable promise by causing very substantial mortality within 7-14 days of exposure. This mortality will generate excellent malaria control if there is a high likelihood that mosquitoes contact fungi early in their adult lives. However, where contact rates are lower, as might result from poor pesticide coverage, some mosquitoes will contact fungi one or more feeding cycles after they acquire malaria, and so risk transmitting malaria before the fungus kills them. Critics have argued that 'slow acting' fungal biopesticides are, therefore, incapable of delivering malaria control in real-world contexts. Here, utilizing standard WHO laboratory protocols, we demonstrate effective action of a biopesticide much faster than previously reported. Specifically, we show that transient exposure to clay tiles sprayed with a candidate biopesticide comprising spores of a natural isolate of Beauveria bassiana, could reduce malaria transmission potential to zero within a feeding cycle. The effect resulted from a combination of high mortality and rapid fungal-induced reduction in feeding and flight capacity. Additionally, multiple insecticide-resistant lines from three key African malaria vector species were completely susceptible to fungus. Thus, fungal biopesticides can block transmission on a par with chemical insecticides, and can achieve this where chemical insecticides have little impact. These results support broadening the current vector control paradigm beyond fastacting chemical toxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An abstract of the article "Characterization of multiple insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) from Pointe Noire, Republic of the Congo" that was presented at a conference titled "From Parasite to Prevention: Advances in the understanding of malaria" held in Edinburgh, Great Britain on October 20-22, 2010, is presented.