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Who benefits when economic costs to the pursuit of higher education are diminished? Can such reforms advance the educational trajectory of historically marginalized groups, including women and indigenous people, or are historic social inequalities replicated in the use of new opportunities? The 2016 Ley de Gratuidad in Chile presents a unique opportunity to examine who benefits and how when the state provides a policy guaranteeing free higher education at participating universities. Given the systematic biases and cultural norms faced by women and indigenous people in Chile and the broad design of the state-led policy, the educational reform constitutes an important test of the extent to which lowering costs can facilitate education across an economically and socially diverse population. Leveraging data from two waves of a household survey, this paper finds that educational attainment, measured in the number of years of schooling achieved by respondents, is significantly higher for those who receive such a benefit, consistent with the design and intent of the policy. More surprisingly, these increases in years of education occur for women and indigenous people, even though no programmatic element emphasizes these groups. The results suggest that state financing is significantly associated with promoting higher education in the population and that women, the poor, and indigenous people are significant beneficiaries of this effect despite the social and cultural barriers in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent years have seen the rapid passage and modification of family leave policies in Latin America, a surprising trend, given the region's historically conservative gender norms. This article argues that the rise of new paternity leave policies—as well as the modifications to longer-standing maternity leave policies—reflects contending visions of gender and the family, mediated by the institutions and actors that populate the region's political landscape. Using an original dataset of family policy measures, this article finds that the factors facilitating the adoption of new, vanguard policies, such as paternity leave, function in ways different from those that shape the expansion of longer-standing policies, including maternity leave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine whether our undergraduate curriculum fulfills the pedagogical goals of our department, the authors conducted a semester-long curriculum assessment. This article discusses five main lessons and three lingering questions to demonstrate potential benefits of curriculum assessment and to prompt further disciplinary conversation about how undergraduate teaching should be structured. The overarching lesson, however, is that although student needs may be quite diverse, an emphasis on core aspects of the program can yield better training for all undergraduates. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In this paper, we seek to draw lessons about the roles that religious institutions can play in promoting democracy in deeply divided societies by examining the experience of the Catholic Church in Latin America. We focus on the cases of Chile and El Salvador, two countries where the Catholic Church played a decisive role in advancing democracy after autocratic military rule. These two cases illustrate where theology and action productively promoted social change in highly conflictual societies. We note challenges to democracy in the region, but also new opportunities in the era of the first Latin American pope, Francis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Large aqueous ions are interesting because they are useful in materials science (for example to generate thin films) but also because they serve as molecular models for the oxide-aqueous mineral interface where spectroscopy is difficult. Here we show that new clusters of the type M[(μ-OH)2Co(NH3)4]3(NO3)6 (M=Al, Ga) can be synthesized using Werner's century-old cluster as a substitutable framework. We substituted Group 13 metals into the hexol Co[(μ-OH)2Co(NH3)4]36+ ion to make diamagnetic heterometallic ions. The solid-state structure of the hexol-type derivatives were determined by single-crystal XRD and NMR spectroscopy and confirmed that the solid-state structure persists in solution after dissolution into either D2O or [D6]DMSO. Other compositions besides these diamagnetic ions can undoubtedly be made using a similar approach, which considerably expands the number of stable aqueous heteronuclear ions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large aqueous ions are interesting because they are useful in materials science (for example to generate thin films) but also because they serve as molecular models for the oxide-aqueous mineral interface where spectroscopy is difficult. Here we show that new clusters of the type M[(μ-OH)2Co(NH3)4]3(NO3)6 (M=Al, Ga) can be synthesized using Werner's century-old cluster as a substitutable framework. We substituted Group 13 metals into the hexol Co[(μ-OH)2Co(NH3)4]36+ ion to make diamagnetic heterometallic ions. The solid-state structure of the hexol-type derivatives were determined by single-crystal XRD and NMR spectroscopy and confirmed that the solid-state structure persists in solution after dissolution into either D2O or [D6]DMSO. Other compositions besides these diamagnetic ions can undoubtedly be made using a similar approach, which considerably expands the number of stable aqueous heteronuclear ions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on labor force in Latin America. Topics discussed include office towers in the cities in Latin America, production facilities and manufacturing. Other topics which includes domestic consumption, employment in Latin America and middle class in the region are also discussed. Economic development of the region is also mentioned.

How does welfare state expansion reconfigure political coalitions? This paper challenges traditional accounts that pit social policy ‘insiders’, who univocally oppose policy expansion, against ‘outsiders’ who favour it. It argues that labour market vulnerability and partisan cues can play a critical role in shaping the preferences of both insiders and outsiders, and thus produce new pro-expansion coalitions. To test this claim, it employs historical analysis of key social insurance configurations in Bolivia over the last 30 years, as well as an original survey carried out in Bolivia following that nation’s 2007 extension of a noncontributory national minimum pension. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In recent decades, developing and middle-income countries around the globe have adopted path-breaking reforms to their social protection systems. Latin America has been a pioneer region, expanding the state’s commitment on behalf of low-income citizens in key policy areas in many countries. This paper undertakes two tasks. First, it documents the surprising extension of noncontributory social protection policies across many Latin American countries, highlighting how tax-financed programs have come to play a central role in a variety of settings. Second, it examines citizen-level preferences that support this trend, arguing that employment vulnerability and threats to income continuity play a decisive role in shaping demand for public, rather than private, social protection. Survey data on labor-market risks and social policy preferences from eighteen countries corroborate these claims. Our findings suggest that other countries undergoing labor-market strains may experience similar demands for a “return of the state” as a guarantor of social protection in the coming years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 2002 Barcelona summit, Germany has been seen as a regional leader in achieving European states’ shared commitment to increase state-funded childcare. Yet Germany’s childcare success has not been homogeneous across its Länder; rather, it has shown remarkable subnational variation, with considerable differences in spending, policy design and coverage. Using panel data analysis and historical narratives, this article provides a theory for variation in provision of state-financed childcare for children under three years of age. We argue that competing visions of childcare at the subnational level – driven by the demands of differing numbers of women in the workforce and religious beliefs, and channelled by local government partisanship – have served as powerful constraints on convergence. Left partisanship and increased participation of women in the labour force are associated with higher provision of childcare for those aged under three, while larger Catholic populations are correlated with less extensive state-funded childcare. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Flat-[Ga13(μ3-OH)6(μ-OH)18(H2O)24](NO3)15 (Ga13) and heterometallic [Ga13−xInx(μ3-OH)6(μ-OH)18(H2O)24](NO3)15 (x = 5, 4) clusters were synthesized by the electrolysis of metal nitrate salt solutions to directly form, without purification, aqueous precursor inks for InxGa13−xOy semiconducting films in <2 h. Raman spectroscopy and 1H-NMR spectroscopy confirm the presence of [Ga13−xInx(μ3-OH)6(μ-OH)18(H2O)24(NO3)15] clusters. Bottom-gate thin-film transistors were fabricated using ∼15 nm-thick Ga13−xInxOy films as the active channel layer, displaying turn-on voltages of −2 V, and on/off current ratios greater than 106. The average channel mobility of the transistors fabricated from the cluster solutions generated by electrolysis was ∼5 cm−2 V−1s−1 which was more than twice that of transistors fabricated from control solutions with the simple nitrate salt precursors of ∼2 cm−2 V−1s−1. Electrochemical cluster synthesis thus provides a simple and direct route to aqueous precursors for solution-processed inorganic electronics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What explains the recent rise in non-contributory social insurance programmes in Latin America? Since the 1990s, Latin American countries have enacted significant social policy reforms that have supplemented contributory insurance policies with new or expanded non-contributory programmes, financed by general tax revenues. We present a political explanation for this phenomenon, arguing that the process of deindustrialization, and especially the increased labour insecurity that it entails, has changed the mix of social insurance policies favoured by different individuals in the income and employment distributions. A long-term increase in economic insecurity has increased the relative demand for tax-financed, rather than contribution-financed, social insurance. Elected officials, especially those in the recent ‘rise of the Left’ in Latin America, have proved eager to meet these demands. We find strong evidence for this argument using both cross-national data on non-contributory pension policy adoption and individual-level data on policy preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

ABSTRACT Labor market dualism-the segmentation of workers between formal, legally protected employment and informal, unprotected status-has long drawn attention from scholars and policymakers in Latin America. This article argues that lasting patterns of economic and political segmentation of workers arose earlier in the region's history than has previously been understood, well before the classic 'incorporation' period. Late-nineteenth-century practices for the recruitment and retention of workers shaped Latin America's first sets of labor laws, most notably those governing union organization and individual worker job stability. Subsequently, these first laws served as important templates for development, constraining and conditioning the labor codes adopted under mass-based politics. Using historical data drawn from Chile, Peru, and Argentina, this article shows how differing recruitment practices and variation in the extension of effective suffrage rights and electoral participation shaped early legal labor market segmentation and inequality in Latin America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substituting one metal for another in inorganic and organometallic systems is a proven strategy for synthesizing complex molecules, and in some cases, provides the only route to a particular system. The multivalent nature of the coordination in metal-ligand assemblies lends itself more readily to some types of transmetalation. For instance, a binding site can open up for exchange without greatly effecting the many other interactions holding the structure together. In addition to exchanging the metal and altering the local binding environment, transmetalation in supramolecular systems can also lead to substantial changes in the nature of the secondary and tertiary structure of a larger assembly. In this tutorial review we will cover discrete supramolecular assemblies in which metals are exchanged. First we will address fully formed structures where direct substitution replaces one type of metal for another without changing the overall supramolecular assembly. We will then address systems where the disruptive exchange of one metal for another leads to a larger change in the supramolecular assembly. When possible we have tried to highlight systems that use supramolecular self-assembly in tandem with transmetalation to synthesize new structures not accessible through a more direct approach. At the end of this review, we highlight the use of transmetalation in self-assembled aqueous inorganic clusters and discuss the consequences for material science applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Although the United States 1993 Family and Medical Leave Act is considered meager by international standards, significant variation in family leave policies exists across U. S. states. This article develops a political theory-driven by mobilized interest groups-to explain variation in the duration and pay level of state parental leave policies. Methods Employing four different measures of family leave policy, we use ordinary least squares and logit models to test the effects of partisanship, women in the legislature, and evangelical populations on parental leave outcomes. Results We find that states with a pattern of Democratic Party controlled legislatures and high percentages of legislative seats occupied by women see more generous parental leave protections, while states with large populations of evangelical Christians see less generous policies. Conclusion Family leave policies are the product of a battle between competing visions of the family and the state, shaped by partisanship, gender, and religion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on recent work and data on social protection in the developing world, this essay evaluates the current state of the art and suggests several important new lines of research. We first examine the historical origin and evolution of social protection systems in developing countries, arguing that insufficient attention has been paid to the authoritarian roots of developing nations' social policy. As a preliminary effort to remedy this shortcoming in the literature, we offer a political logic for the observed variation in the character of institutions of social policy established by nondemocratic regimes. Next, we explore recent research examining linkages between models of economic development and welfare regimes in developing countries. Finally, we turn to the study of the political determinants of the social policy reforms that occurred in the final decades of the twentieth century, arguing that variation in reform across policy areas has been more complex than is generally appreciated in the literature. To explain this variation, we develop a theory that identifies the political coalitions supporting different policy outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A central puzzle in the comparative politics literature has been why certain societies are able to achieve political stability while others suffer from strife, repression and authoritarian rule. This article applies the solution concept of quantal response equilibrium (QRE) to Weingast's Sovereign-Constituency Co-ordination Game in order to show how our understanding of political stability can be enhanced when uncertainty and limited rationality are explicitly modelled. Comparative statics results first confirm the intuitive logic that civil conflict is unlikely when regimes threaten penalties for revolt that are much more severe than current living conditions and when the benefits to a successful revolt are not sufficiently enticing. In addition, our analysis provides a logic for the outbreak of civil conflict, noting that it is most likely when key payoffs are in their intermediate regions and far from critical 'thresholds', resulting in ambiguous and counterintuitive decision making by leaders and citizen opposition groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to determine if the endoscopic presence of esophagitis predicts aspiration pneumonia after the initiation of enteral feedings in a newly placed PEG tube. A retrospective analysis of 278 patients who received a PEG tube from November 1999 to June 2002 was performed. All PEG procedures performed by a single endoscopist were reviewed from the GI Trac database at the Medical University of South Carolina. Eleven of the procedures were aborted due to technical difficulties. Nine patients received the PEG for gastric decompression only. Seven patients died within 14 days of PEG placement from non-PEG-related complications and were excluded. The resulting 251 patients included for our analysis successfully had PEG tube placement and had at least 14 days of enteral feeding. Esophagitis was defined macroscopically by the endoscopic presence of mucosal edema, friability, or obscurity of the normal vascular pattern in the distal esophagus. Aspiration was defined as the witnessed regurgitation of or tracheal suctioning of PEG feedings. Pneumonia as a consequence of aspiration was defined by development of fever and new infiltrate on chest radiograph within 14 days of PEG placement. Two hundred fifty-one patients had PEG placement (M, 127; F, 124; average age, 62.4 year; age range, 18-95 years) performed by a single endoscopist over a 32-month period. Fourteen (5.6%) of these patients had clinically evident pulmonary aspiration, with seven of them developing pneumonia. Thirteen (93%) of these patients had normal esophageal mucosa. One of the 24 patients (4%) with esophagitis or esophageal ulceration present endoscopically had an aspiration event with subsequent pneumonia. None of the 20 patients found to have some other form of esophageal pathology had an aspiration event. The overall incidence of aspiration pneumonia after the initiation of PEG feedings was 2.7% (7/251). The odds ratio that the presence of esophagitis would predict the development of aspiration pneumonia was 1.60, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.18 to 13.89. This study argues that the presence of esophagitis alone does not increase the risk of aspiration pneumonia from PEG feedings. Other factors apart from esophagitis play an important role in the incidence of aspiration pneumonia with PEG feeding [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the observation that chloride serves as a simple catalyst for the acceleration of a self-assembly reaction between AsCl3 and dithiolate ligands (H2L) to form As2L3 assemblies. Studies on a model monomeric arsenic complex suggest that chloride may accelerate ligand exchange dynamics in pnictogen thiolates in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclic disulfide macrocycles were rapidly synthesized cleanly and selectively from rigid dithiols via oxidation with iodine when activated by pnictogen additives (As and Sb). Macrocycles were confirmed by 1H-NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. A p-xylyl-based disulfide trimer and tetramer crystallized in hollow, stacked columns stabilized by intermolecular, sulfur…sulfur close contacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]