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In the Fram Strait, mid‐ocean ridge spreading is represented by the ultra‐slow system of the Molloy Ridge, the Molloy Transform Fault and the Knipovich Ridge. Sediments on oceanic and continental crust are gas charged and there are several locations with documented seafloor seepage. Sedimentary faulting shows recent stress release in the sub‐surface, but the drivers of stress change and its influence on fluid flow are not entirely understood. We present here the results of an 11‐month‐long ocean bottom seismometer survey conducted over the highly faulted sediment drift northwards from the Knipovich Ridge to monitor seismicity and infer the regional state of stress. We obtain a detailed earthquake catalog that improves the spatial resolution of mid‐ocean ridge seismicity compared with published data. Seismicity at the Molloy Transform Fault is occurring southwards from the bathymetric imprint of the fault, as supported by a seismic profile. Earthquakes in the northern termination of the Knipovich Ridge extend eastwards from the ridge valley, which together with syn‐rift faulting identified in seismic reflection data, suggests that a portion of the currently active spreading center is buried under sediments away from the bathymetric expression of the rift valley. This hints at the direct link between crustal rifting processes and faulting in shallow sediments. Two earthquakes occur close to the seepage system of the Vestnesa Ridge further north from the network. We suggest that deeper rift structures, reactivated by gravity and/or post‐glacial subsidence, may lead to accommodation of stress through shallow extensional faults, therefore impacting seepage dynamics. Plain Language Summary: In the Fram Strait, between Greenland and Svalbard, the ocean floor is slowly spreading due to the plate motion and this process generates most of the seismicity in the region and is also responsible for sediment faulting. In this area, sediments are known to contain gas accumulations and gas is being released into the ocean. It is still not well understood whether sediment deformation and gas release are controlled by the plate motion and crustal changes following deglaciation of the continents. To capture weak seismicity, it is necessary to have seismometers deployed locally on the ocean floor. This study uses the data from a network of ocean bottom seismometers, which were placed at the seafloor and recorded seismicity for 11 months. Local seismicity and high‐resolution seismic data show regions of present‐day tectonic deformation and help to better identify major active faults in the rift valley. At the Molloy Transform Fault, earthquakes occur further south than expected, and the seismic line shows shallow sediment faulting. Our results suggest that thick sediment deposits adjacent to the mid‐ocean ridges may reactivate deep rift structures and accommodate stress through extensional faults that leaked methane over geological time. Key Points: Ocean bottom seismometers allowed improved seismicity imaging in the eastern Fram StraitIntegration of earthquakes and seismic data revealed a buried spreading center at the Molloy Transform Fault—Knipovich Ridge intersectionTwo earthquakes at a zone of sedimentary faulting and active seepage at the Vestnesa Ridge, suggesting accommodation of crustal faults [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Svalbard margin represents one of the northernmost gas hydrate provinces worldwide. Vestnesa Ridge (VR) and Svyatogor Ridge (SR) west of Svalbard are two prominent sediment drifts showing abundant pockmarks and sites of seismic chimney structures. Some of these sites at VR are associated with active gas venting and were the focus of drilling and coring with the seafloor‐deployed MARUM‐MeBo70 rig. Understanding the nature of fluid migration and gas hydrate distribution requires (among other parameters) knowledge of the thermal regime and in situ gas and pore fluid composition. In situ temperature data were obtained downhole at a reference site at VR defining a geothermal gradient of ~78 mK m−1 (heat flow ~95 mW m−2). Additional heat probe data were obtained to describe the thermal regime of the pockmarks. The highest heat flow values were systematically seen within pockmark depressions and were uncorrelated to gas venting occurrences. Heat flow within pockmarks is typically ~20 mW m−2 higher than outside pockmarks. Using the downhole temperature data and gas compositions from drilling we model the regional base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BGHSZ). Thermal modeling including topographic effects suggest a BGHSZ up to 40 m deeper than estimated from seismic data. Uncertainties in sediment properties (velocity and thermal conductivity) are only partially explaining the mismatch. Capillary effects due to small sediment grain sizes may shift the free gas occurrence above the equilibrium BGHSZ. Changes in gas composition or pore fluid salinity at greater depth may also explain the discrepancy in observed and modeled BGHSZ. Key Points: Heat flow variations across the Vestnesa and Svyatogor Ridges off Svalbard are correlated with seismic data showing gas hydrate BSRsIn situ temperatures were measured with the MARUM MeBo70 rig up to ~60 mbsf indicating a background thermal gradient of ~78°C/kmHeat flow is significantly higher within the pockmarks but is not correlated to the occurrence of gas venting [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Svyatogor Ridge and surroundings, located on the sediment-covered western flank of the Northern Knipovich Ridge, host extensive gas hydrate and related fluid flow systems. The fluid flow system here manifests in the upper sedimentary sequence as gas hydrates and free gas, indicated by bottom simulating reflections (BSRs) and amplitude anomalies. Using 2D seismic lines and bathymetric data, we map tectonic features such as faults, crustal highs, and indicators of fluid flow processes. Results indicate a strong correlation between crustal faults, crustal highs and fluid accumulations in the overlying sediments, as well as an increase in geothermal gradient over crustal faults. We conclude here that gas generated during the serpentinization of exhumed mantle rocks drive the extensive occurrence of gas hydrate and fluid flow systems in the region and transform faults act as an additional major pathway for fluid circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2014, the discovery of seafloor mounds leaking methane gas into the water column in the northwestern Barents Sea became the first to document the existence of nonpermafrost‐related gas hydrate pingos (GHPs) on the Eurasian Arctic shelf. The discovered site is given attention because the gas hydrates occur close to the upper limit of the gas hydrate stability, thus may be vulnerable to climatic forcing. In addition, this site lies on the regional Hornsund Fault Zone marking a transition between the oceanic and continental crust. The Hornsund Fault Zone is known to coincide with an extensive seafloor gas seepage area; however, until now lack of seismic data prevented connecting deep structural elements to shallow seepages. Here we use high‐resolution P‐Cable 3‐D seismic data to study the subsurface architecture of GHPs and underlying glacial and preglacial deposits. The data show gas hydrates, authigenic carbonates, and free gas within the GHPs on top of gas chimneys piercing a thin section of low‐permeability glacial sediments. The chimneys connect to faults within the underlying tilted and folded fluid and gas‐hydrate‐bearing sedimentary rocks. Correlation of our data with regional 2‐D seismic surveys shows a spatial connection between the shallow subsurface fluid flow system and the deep‐seated regional fault zone. We suggest that fault‐controlled Paleocene hydrocarbon reservoirs inject methane into the low‐permeability glacial deposits and near‐seabed sediments, forming the GHPs. This conceptual model explains the existence of climate‐sensitive gas hydrate inventories and extensive seabed methane release observed along the Svalbard‐Barents Sea margin. Plain Language Summary: Gas hydrates (concentrated hydrocarbon gases in cages of ice) are stable within high pressure and low temperature. At boundary conditions, minor increases in ocean temperature may trigger gas hydrate decay and the possibility that gas hydrates may dissociate due to future warming causes particular awareness. We present observations of a hydrate system expressed as ≤450‐m wide and ≤10‐m high gas hydrate pingos (seabed mounds bearing gas hydrates). The geological conditions controlling the formation of these shallow gas hydrate accumulations have not been previously investigated. Along a ~700‐km region that coincides with a regional fault system, the Hornsund Fault Zone, more than 1,200 seeps releasing gas from the seafloor have been observed. Linkage of this fault zone to the methane hotspots has been hypothesized but never supported by empirical data. Combining new and published data, we postulate the major preconditions for GHP development: geologically constrained focused release of methane from 55–65 million‐year‐old rocks, modern gas hydrate stability conditions, and a drape of muddy bottom sediments favorable for heaving due to hydrate growth. We observe a clear relationship between this methane system and the regional fault system, which potentially demonstrates a typical scenario of fault‐controlled methane migration across the Svalbard‐Barents Sea margin. Key Points: At the Barents Sea margin, several active gas‐hydrate bearing pingos are seafloor manifestations of a deep sourced fluid flow systemGas is supplied through conduits that penetrate low permeable glacial deposits and underlying faulted rocks with abundant gas accumulationsThe shallow fluid migration is related to deep‐rooted faults of the Hornsund Fault Zone [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: During expedition MARIA S. MERIAN MSM57/2 to the Svalbard margin offshore Prins Karls Forland, the seafloor drill rig MARUM‐MeBo70 was used to assess the landward termination of the gas hydrate system in water depths between 340 and 446 m. The study region shows abundant seafloor gas vents, clustered at a water depth of ∼400 m. The sedimentary environment within the upper 100 m below seafloor (mbsf) is dominated by ice‐berg scours and glacial unconformities. Sediments cored included glacial diamictons and sheet‐sands interbedded with mud. Seismic data show a bottom simulating reflector terminating ∼30 km seaward in ∼760 m water depth before it reaches the theoretical limit of the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) at the drilling transect. We present results of the first in situ temperature measurements conducted with MeBo70 down to 28 mbsf. The data yield temperature gradients between ∼38°C km−1 at the deepest site (446 m) and ∼41°C km−1 at a shallower drill site (390 m). These data constrain combined with in situ pore‐fluid data, sediment porosities, and thermal conductivities the dynamic evolution of the GHSZ during the past 70 years for which bottom water temperature records exist. Gas hydrate is not stable in the sediments at sites shallower than 390 m water depth at the time of acquisition (August 2016). Only at the drill site in 446 m water depth, favorable gas hydrate stability conditions are met (maximum vertical extent of ∼60 mbsf); however, coring did not encounter any gas hydrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present results from a sediment core collected from a pockmark field on the Vestnesa Ridge (~ 80° N) in the eastern Fram Strait. This is the only deep-water gateway to the Arctic, and one of the northernmost marine gas hydrate provinces in the world. Eight 14C AMS dates reveal a detailed chronology for the last 14 ka BP. The δ 13C record measured on the benthonic foraminiferal species Cassidulina neoteretis shows two distinct intervals with negative values termed carbon isotope excursion (CIE I and CIE II, respectively). The values were as low as â'4.37‰ in CIE I, correlating with the BÃ,llingâ€"AllerÃ,d interstadials, and as low as â'3.41‰ in CIE II, correlating with the early Holocene. In the BÃ,llingâ€"AllerÃ,d interstadials, the planktonic foraminifera also show negative values, probably indicating secondary methane-derived authigenic precipitation affecting the foraminiferal shells. After a cleaning procedure designed to remove authigenic carbonate coatings on benthonic foraminiferal tests from this event, the 13C values are still negative (as low as â'2.75‰). The CIE I and CIE II occurred during periods of ocean warming, sea-level rise and increased concentrations of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere. CIEs with similar timing have been reported from other areas in the North Atlantic, suggesting a regional event. The trigger mechanisms for such regional events remain to be determined. We speculate that sea-level rise and seabed loading due to high sediment supply in combination with increased seismic activity as a result of rapid deglaciation may have triggered the escape of significant amounts of methane to the seafloor and the water column above. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present results from a sediment core collected from a pockmark field on the Vestnesa Ridge (~80° N) in the eastern Fram Strait. This is the only deep-water gateway to the Arctic, and one of the northernmost marine gas hydrate provinces in the world. Eight 14C AMS dating reveals a detailed chronology for the last 14 ka BP. The d13C record measured on the benthic foraminiferal species Cassidulina neoteretis shows two distinct intervals with negative values, as low as -4.37‰ in the Bølling-Allerød interstadials and as low as -3.41‰ in the early Holocene. After cleaning procedure designed to remove all authigenic carbonate coatings on benthic foraminiferal tests, the 13C values are still negative (as low as -2.75‰). We have interpreted these negative carbon isotope excursions (CIEs) to record past methane release events, resulting from the incorporation of 13C-depleted carbon from methane emissions into the benthic foraminiferal shells. The CIEs during the Bølling-Allerød interstadials and the early Holocene relate to periods of ocean warming, sea level rise and increased concentrations of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere. CIEs with similar timing have been reported from other areas in the North Atlantic suggesting a regional event. The trigger mechanisms for such regional events remain to be determined. We speculate that sea-level rise and seabed loading due to high sediment supply in combination with increased seismic activity as a result of rapid deglaciation may have triggered the escape of significant amounts of methane to the seafloor and the water column above [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

series of en echelon cracks run nearly parallel to the outer shelf edge of the mid-Norwegian margin. The features can be followed in a ~60-km-long and ~5-km-wide zone in which up to 10-m-deep cracks developed in the seabed at 400–550 m water depth. The time of the seabed cracking has been dated to 7350 C years BP (8180 cal years BP), which corresponds with the main Storegga Slide event (8100 ± 250 cal. years BP). Reflection seismic data suggest that the cracks do not appear to result from deep-seated faults, but it cannot be ruled out completely that tension crevices were created in relation to past movements on the headwall of the Storegga slide. The cracking zone corresponds well to the zone where the base of the hydrate stability zone (BHSZ) outcrops. Evidence of fluid release in the BHSZ outcrop zone comes from an extensive pockmark field. We suggest that post-glacial ocean warming triggered the dissociation of gas hydrates while the interplay between dissociation, overpressure, and sediment fracturing on the outer shelf remains to be understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report on the geochemistry of hydrocarbons and pore waters down to 62.5 mbsf, collected by drilling with the MARUM‐MeBo70 and by gravity coring at the Lunde pockmark in the Vestnesa Ridge. Our data document the origin and transformations of volatiles feeding gas emissions previously documented in this region. Gas hydrates are present where a fracture network beneath the pockmark focusses migration of thermogenic hydrocarbons characterized by their C1/C2+ and stable isotopic compositions (δ2H‐CH4, δ13C‐CH4). Measured geothermal gradients (~80 °C/km) and known formation temperatures (>70 °C) suggest that those hydrocarbons are formed at depths >800 mbsf. A combined analytical/modeling approach, including concentration and isotopic mass balances, reveals that pockmark sediments experience diffuse migration of thermogenic hydrocarbons. However, at sites without channeled flow this appears to be limited to depths >~50 mbsf. At all sites we document a contribution of microbial methanogenesis to the overall carbon cycle that includes a component of secondary carbonate reduction—that is, reduction of dissolved inorganic carbon generated by anaerobic oxidation of methane in the uppermost methanogenic zone. Anaerobic oxidation of methane and carbonate reduction rates are spatially variable within the pockmark and are highest at high‐flux sites. These reactions are revealed by 13C depletions of dissolved inorganic carbon at the sulfate‐methane interface at all sites. However, 13C depletions of CH4 are only observed at the low methane flux sites because changes in the isotopic composition of the overall methane pool are masked at high‐flux sites. 13C depletions of total organic carbon suggest that at seeps sites, methane‐derived carbon is incorporated into de novo synthesized biomass. Key Points: Drilling with the seafloor drill rig MeBo70 revealed two major hydrocarbon sources beneath a pockmark at the crest of Vestnesa RidgeThermogenic methane likely formed at depths >800 m below seafloor ascends through faults and leads to hydrate formation and seafloor emissionMethane is transformed into dissolved inorganic carbon at all sites investigated with highest rates observed at active seafloor emission sites [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]