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We explore to what extent previously observed pan-cultural association between dimensions of self-construal and personal life satisfaction (PLS) may be moderated by three national-contextual variables: national wealth, economic inequality, and religious heritage. The results showed that Self-reliance (vs. dependence on others) predicted PLS positively in poorer countries but negatively in richer countries. Connectedness to others (vs. self-containment) predicted PLS more strongly in Protestant-heritage countries. Self-expression (vs. harmony) predicted PLS more weakly (and non-significantly) in Muslim-heritage countries. In contrast, previously reported associations of self-direction (vs. reception-to-influence), consistency (vs. variability), and decontextualized (vs. contextualized) self-understanding with personal life satisfaction were not significantly moderated by these aspects of societal context. These results show the importance of considering the impact of national religious and economic context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research has shown that economic inequality shapes individuals' self-construals. However, it has been unclear which dimensions of self-construal are associated with and affected by economic inequality. A correlational (Study 1: N = 264) and an experimental study (Study 2: N = 532) provided converging evidence linking perceived economic inequality with two forms of independent (vs. interdependent) self-construal: Difference from Others and Self-Reliance. In Study 3 (N = 12,634) societal differences in objective economic inequality across 48 nations predicted feelings of Difference from Others, but not Self-Reliance. Importantly, we found no significant associations of economic inequality with the other six dimensions of self-construal. Our findings help extend previous results linking economic inequality to forms of "social distance." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paucity of mindfulness-based interventions and research in Estonia motivated the development of an Estonian Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Unlike most languages, the Estonian language lacks a distinctive present tense. This provides a potential challenge for assessing mindfulness, a psychological construct characterized by present-moment awareness. We outline the process of overcoming linguistic differences during translation. The Estonian MAAS showed a single-factor structure and strong internal consistency. A cross-cultural comparison showed factorial invariance between the Estonian and the original scale. In an Estonian adult student sample, MAAS scores were invariant across genders and education levels, positively related to subjective well-being and self-esteem and inversely related to public self-consciousness and social anxiety. Item response theory analyses (IRT) revealed seven items of the Estonian version carrying most of the information load. We discuss how translating the MAAS into a unique linguistic context could inform an understanding of mindfulness itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article assesses whether the second version of the Transcendental-future Time Perspective Inventory (TTPI; Zimbardo and Boyd 2008) measures a time perspective or a belief and how it is related to mental health in a highly secular country. The TTPI adapted into the Estonian language is described. Study 1 reports the results of validation performed on a large sample of adult students at different levels of education. Study 2 was carried out in a clinical sample with people turning to psychotherapy. Females scored significantly higher on TTPI than males, other demographic variables (age, level of education) were not related. TTPI scores were not related to mindfulness, self-esteem, well-being and depression. The TTPI is a reliable scale measuring belief in an afterlife, but not a time perspective. The TTPI items should ask how often people imagine themselves in a transcendental future context and if these thoughts are positive or negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]