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This study is a quantitative descriptive that applying a questionnaire to explore undergraduate students' expectations and preferences in EFL teaching-learning activities. A convenience sample of 120 first-year university undergraduates at the start of their university life was used. They were enrolled in an Economic student's degree course at an Indonesian university. The questionnaire focused on students' experiences and perceptions concerning teaching and learning strategies, students' growth skills, the quality of English lecturers, and the students' suggestions toward the Teaching-Learning Process. The data collected were calculated as percentages and discussed. The majority of the students preferred projects as effective teaching-learning strategies. Grammar was considered the most growth skill. Furthermore, good teaching skills and knowledgeable were reckoned as the most favorable qualities of an English teacher. They recommended more fun activities, fewer assignments, seek for other fun activities, and using online applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English for Research Publication Purposes (ERPP) is a sub‐field of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), itself a sub‐field of applied linguistics. This article considers ERPP from a world Englishes perspective, considering the question as to what sort of English is appropriate for ERPP: the standardised model, as preferred at present, or a varietal, world Englishes, model, which would take more account of the fact that the majority of scholars publishing their work in English are no longer Anglophones, but use English as an additional language (EAL). The article is in two parts. In the first part, the case for 'Standard English' is presented, while the second part presents the case for a varietal model. In spite of some limited evidence of world Englishes encroaching into international journals, the latter remain fundamentally conservative and anchored in Standard English. Factors which might increase the use of world Englishes are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The journey of English language in India has been variously assessed through tropes of mimicry, agency, resistance, and linguistic hybridity. While these critical assessments are largely placed within local, provincial, and national frameworks, this essay argues for a transnational critical framework to understand the history of English in India. The development of transnational publics at the end of the nineteenth century was facilitated by travel, print networks, and cultural flows between the colonies and the metropole. While English embedded itself into local literary cultures, it was also deployed by colonial subjects in transnational imperial circuits, thus influencing political imaginaries and subjectivities. The essay analyses archival records from the colonial Province of Punjab to see how English was mobilized to project newer identities into transnational print publics and to build transnational networks of solidarity. The essay also examines how the claims made over English help to understand the agency of the gendered colonial subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language is a powerful tool for communication in a variety of fields all around the world. People sometimes communicate in a variety of fields by combining the official language with languages used in other nations. Education, health, business, commerce, and other fields are among them. In Jordan, the commercial sector demonstrates the importance of the native tongue, as well as the diversity of languages used in store signage. This research looks on the languages used on commercial store signage in Irbid. According to the findings of this study, 36 percent of commercial store signs are monolingual English, which indicates that they are written entirely in English. Furthermore, 36% of store signs are bilingual English - Arabic, meaning they are written in both English and Arabic. Other foreign languages, such as French, are written on 18% of store signs, whereas Arabic, the official language of Jordanians, is inscribed on 9%. In conclusion, this study shows that English is widely utilized in the business sector in Irbid, as opposed to other foreign languages, which are infrequently used. It also highlights the strong use of English and Arabic, indicating that Irbid is a moderate and conservative city that values the use of the native tongue alongside English as a foreign language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper chooses 144 students as subjects to conduct a flipped classroom experiment teaching. The results show that before the experiment students from the experimental class and control class universally lack English learning interest, have no habit of preparing lessons before class and are short of consciousness of autonomous learning. However, after the experiment, it is found that score of the experimental class is significantly higher than that of the control class. Furthermore, students' learning attitude, interest and habit, autonomous learning ability, cooperative learning consciousness and degree of satisfaction for learning English in the experimental class are higher than those of the control class. Therefore, it suggests that the flipped classroom teaching mode can effectively stimulate students' interest in learning English, develop their autonomous and cooperative learning abilities, enhance their English learning proficiency and influence the development of English learning attitude and habit actively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having qualified migrant workers to work abroad is necessary. Indonesia has been one among the other Asian countries to send most of its migrant laborers working in middle-class jobs in foreign countries. Pre- departure preparation is an important component in the preparation process and plays a key role in performing good personality in services. Despite their personal reasons and expectations for their life changes, most Indonesian migrant workers suffer from several major drawbacks. This study, therefore, gives an account of the integration of alternative methods for basic English teaching for housemaids candidates through a community development program in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. It aims to enable the workers with basic English for intercultural communication in the mainstream job market in target countries with a diversity of language and cultures. To date, various methods have been applied to measure the participants' basic English ability and the participants are given basic English teaching for three months (March-May 2019). Thirty-five students departure were recruited for this study. To see if the selected methods are integrated for the practicality of basic English teaching, there was a comprehensive observation to find out whether the English teaching and learning run as contextual as possible. The results show that integrating Grammar-Translation Method, Contextual Language Teaching and Total Physical Response gives much to account for contextualizing students with a basic level of English to manage themselves in English for intercultural communication for housemaids tasks in the target countries. Findings of basic English teaching and learning practices are discussed contextually. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For Tibetan college students to learn English, code-switching hinders them because Tibetan, Chinese, as well as English, form a trilingual environment for language learning. To improve such situation, this article studies the implementation of flipped classroom mode which can innovate the traditional teaching mode by fully highlighting the students' subjectivity as well as stimulating the students' initiative and enthusiasm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Siedlce Komeniological Research Bulletin, Pedagogy Series / Siedleckie Zeszyty Komeniologiczne, seria PEDAGOGIKA is the property of Siedlce University of Natural Sciences & Humanities and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

If the meaning contained in a remedial message has not been satisfactorily comprehended, then its intended impact upon consumer beliefs cannot logically be achieved. The present investigation, employing three heterogeneous samples, found that remedial messages using "plain English" developed and proposed by the FTC may be widely misunderstood by large segments of the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within this qualitative case study, I describe how a fifth-grade teacher in an affluent and culturally homogenous school attempted to "disturb the waters" through teaching global literature. Framed by transactional theories of response and critical language awareness, I identify three central pedagogical moves that supported disruptions of students' assumptions and beliefs: (1) inviting students to share their aesthetic transactions, (2) privileging multiple perspectives and genres, and (3) calling attention to language choices as a central line of inquiry. I argue that both transactional and critical approaches to literacy and language are necessary in order to move students beyond disinterested and prejudicial responses to global literature and to challenge commonly held beliefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on issues about English education as well as the backdrop of communal child care. Other topics being presented include an editorial about #MeToo, the English Language Arts Teacher Educators membership, and the development of a Qualtrics survey comprised of multiple-choice, numeric-scale, and open-response items.

This paper outlines the research thus far undertaken on a 'Real Character' (RC) for the digital age, i.e., a pasigraphy (a read-only form of writing) which may be understood by speakers of mutually unintelligible languages. Using Basic English (Ogden 1930, inter al.) as a lexicon, symbols drawn from the work of Haag (1902, 1935) and other symbols, a 'Tiny Language' is developed, with a minimal lexicon and few rules. Additional lexical items are created by combining fundamental RC characters. Learning-principles and exercises are provided. The question of the further development of RC is raised, together with the possibility of its becoming a handwritten script as well as digital character. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English language education has always been accorded paramount importance in China since the mid-1980s. In order to improve English teaching quality, China has initiated several rounds of English curriculum reform at various levels against the backdrop of the unprecedented spread of English as a lingua franca. Drawing upon the texts of the national curriculum documents and the relevant research literature, this paper examines the evolution of the College English curriculum for non-English majors in Chinese higher institutions over the past three decades. It reviews a number of what we see as the most important trends relating to the College English curriculum development, together with some discussion of particularly controversial issues arising from this process. We base the paper's findings on a three-part theoretical framework consisting of social development, students' needs and knowledge development to identify the factors which provide the impetus for change in the College English curricula. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the covert language policy and micro-language planning practices of one female Brazilian-American entrepreneur, Magda, within her multilingual cleaning company. Because Magda is plurilingual (Spolsky in Language policy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004), she is able to draw on her metalinguistic awareness and multicompetence in order to facilitate communication between her working-class migrant employees and her English-speaking clients as well as engage in what we call 'inter-employee brokering'. Magda's position as the company's primary language broker enhances her authoritative power in both employer-employee and company owner-customer relations. The current study addresses the need to look into language practices and micro language planning within local contexts (Nekvapil and Nekula in Language planning in local contexts. Multilingual Matters, New York, pp 268-287, 2008) as well as blue-collar workplaces (Holmes in Continuum companion to discourse analysis. Continuum, London, pp 185-198, 2011; Lønsmann and Kraft in The Routledge handbook of language in the workplace. Routledge, New York, forthcoming), which in one way reflect macro social structures, class differences and asymmetrical power relations concerning language use, but also emphasize a deviation from these macro-level patterns through the value placed on Portuguese as the lingua franca within the cleaning company. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper conducts a comparative study between L1 and L2 (L1 Bengali) English discourse level speech planning to investigate differences between L1 and L2 English speaker groups in the organization of discourse-level speech planning. For this purpose, English speech of 10 L1 English and 40 L1 Bengali speakers of the same discourse are analyzed in terms of using prosodic and acoustic cues by applying hierarchical discourse prosody framework. From this analysis, between-group differences in discourse level speech planning are found through the speech rate, locations of discourse boundary breaks as well as size and scope of speech planning and chunking units. Result of analysis shows that the speech rate of L1 English speakers is higher than that of L2 English speakers, L2 English speakers contain more break boundary than that of the L1 English speakers at every discourse level in the organization, which exhibit the fact that L2 English speakers use more intermediate chunking units and larger scale planning units than that of L1 English speakers. Between-group differences are also found through the analysis of phrase component at prosodic phrase level and accent component at the prosodic word level. These findings can be attributed to L2 English speakers' improper phrasing, improper word level prominence and the ambiguous difference between content words and function words. The study concludes that the deficiencies in English strategy for L1 Bengali speakers' discourse-level speech planning compared to L1 English speakers are due to the influence of L1 (Bengali) prosody at the L2 discourse level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In phrasal compounds of the type XP+Y, one can assume a relation "R" that holds between the head and the non-head just as in ordinary N+N compounds. The paper discusses the question how "R" should be understood. Three recent approaches, i.e., construction morphology, parallel architecture view, and indexicalism are discussed. It is argued that all approaches lack a pragmatic component which is necessary for modeling pragmatic inferencing with respect to phrasal compounds. Thus, an "unspecific meaning" approach to the semantics of phrasal compounds, together with contextualist views on pragmatic enrichment, is a serious alternative to the approaches discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As phrasal compounds seem to be words that contain syntactic phrases they are a prominent case against the strict separation of morphology from syntax. However, it is not obvious at all that phrasal compounds do contain syntactic phrases. First, as for phrasal compounds whose non-head constituent is a quote, there is every reason to assume that they are NN compounds - whether or not the quote is the quote of a phrase. Second, taking the different types of phrasal compounds into account it is justified to assume that they do not contain syntactic phrases if one acknowledges phrase-to-word conversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This volume is a collection of papers on typological and theoretical aspects of phrasal compounds. It is based on talks on this topic held during a workshop, funded by the DFG and the NSF, in June 2013 in Mannheim. The papers introduce new data from a number of languages like English, German, Italian, Greek, Turkish and some Turkic languages, and deal with this phenomenon from different theoretical perspectives, locating it on different levels of language and its interfaces. By comparing the phenomenon in different languages we seek to gain a better understanding of its structural, semantic and other properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language represents one of the main factors that determine the distinctiveness and cultural identity of each branch of sport. Its rich lexicon is an indication of its diffusion and status in the society. A large number of professional and trade jargons such as coaching jargon, sports training terminologies, the language of sport sciences, sport medicine and athletes' and sport fans' slang have emerged from the area of sport. Each of these reflects phonetic, stylistic and morphological features of its national language. Given that English has undoubtedly become the source language of sports terminology with a vast influence on other languages, the aim of this paper is to compare the formation processes in both Czech and English sports terminologies, emphasizing the influence of English on the formation of Czech sports terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Language Problems & Language Planning is the property of John Benjamins Publishing Co. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper enlarges on previous work undertaken on a modern 'Real Character,' that is to say, a pasigraphical form of writing in which meanings are conveyed digitally to the reader by means of icons, indices and symbols (in the Peircean sense) without the intervention of phonetically-based writing. The purpose and audience for such a system are examined. The basis for a lexicon is sought in work on simplified language and possible semantic universals, and the process of affixation in natural languages is examined as a way of identifying prominent semantic notions. Estimates of necessary vocabulary size are made on the basis of previous studies. A critique of a number of existing visual languages is given and methods are suggested for converting semantic notions into a consistent system of images and characters. Ways of giving conceptual support in the digital transmission of such characters are examined. Principles based on work to date are summarised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the previous research which showed that students knew little about effective ways of dictionary consultation due to the lack of formal dictionary use training, the author worked out specific teaching contents and approaches on dictionary use strategy training, and systematically carried them out among 80 first-year English majors by integrating the training into their Basic English class. The follow-up interview showed that students' efficiency in using dictionaries and their independent language learning had been improved through the training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of the use of scaffolds in written classroom assessments through the voices of both native English speakers and English language learners from two middle schools. Students responded to assessment tasks in writing, by speaking aloud using think aloud protocols, and by reflecting in a post-assessment interview. The classroom assessment tasks were designed to engage students in scientific sense making and multifaceted language use, as recommended by the Next Generation Science Standards. Data analyses showed that both groups benefitted from the use of scaffolds. The findings revealed specific ways that modifications were supportive in helping students to comprehend, visualize and organize thinking, and elicit responses. This study offers a model for both sensitizing teachers and strengthening their strategies for scaffolding assessments equitably. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although now largely forgotten, the international language movement was, from the 1880s to the end of the Second World War, a matter of widespread public interest, as well as a concern of numerous scientists and scholars. The primary goal was to establish a language for international communication, but in the early twentieth century an increasing accent was placed on philosophical considerations: wanted was a language better suited to the needs of modern science and rational thought. In this paper, we examine the example of the English scholar C.K. Ogden's international language Basic English and his efforts to win the Vienna Circle philosophers Otto Neurath and Rudolf Carnap over to the project. Basic is shown to be an implementation of key ideas in Ogden's philosophy of language, ideas shared to a large extent with Neurath and Carnap. This we see through an examination of their unpublished correspondence, as well as through the collaboration that emerged between Ogden and Neurath, in which Neurath's Isotype, a system for graphically representing statistical data, became closely aligned with Basic. Through the ideas and endeavours we investigate here, we gain a new perspective on this crucial period in the history of analytic philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The author discusses the features of the Yat English in Chalmette, Louisiana. She explores the origin of Yat English and its rich meaning to the folkloric life of the local residents, leading to the multiple indexical meanings linked to its linguistic features. The author also mentions how Yat English has spread to several towns in the state, which resulted to the migration of many speakers to outlying areas.

This study examined how Japanese graduate and undergraduate students perceive and segment English sounds (consonants and vowels) with in words. Sixty students were provided with a memory span task in which they repeated aloud English words. There were words with five types of phonological structures: CV, CVC, CVCV, CVCC, and CVCVC. The followings were the main results: (1) Memory spans for CVC and CVCV, which were on the same level, were longer than those for CVCC and CVCVC; (2) The duration of spoken words by students showing a segmentation pattern of mora tended to be lengthier than those of the original sounds, or those by students showing mixed segmentation patterns of mora and syllables; and (3) Students obtaining higher scores on the TOEIC showed more segmentation patterns of syllables. These results suggest that the Japanese rhythm of mora had an enduring influence on perception and segmentation of English sounds, among Japanese students who had studied English more than six years. The acquisition of segmentation patterns of syllables may be one key to improvement of English ability [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Electronic Turkish Studies is the property of Electronic Turkish Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of ESSACHESS is the property of ESSACHESS and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on the argument regarding the usage of the verb "do" in sentence constructions in modern English usage. It cites examples which are used to explain that the verb "do" is optional and that it may not be obligatory in any sentence constructions. Jean-Marc Gachelin, a modern grammarian said that internal parallelism in any sentence constructions would be better preserved if the verb "do" is omitted. It also discusses the usage of "out" and "out of" in a sentence which was given separater entries by Oxford English Dictionary (OED).

The article focuses on the recognition and reception of British English and the American English in Portugal. A study conducted to distinguish British English from American English is presented. It mentions that the use of the English language is prevalent to non-native speakers in Portugal, in spite of the language's globalisation.

ABSTRACTEnglish as a lingua franca: a specific example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivated by a radical change in a working environment and encouraged by a genuine need of the promotion of practical research in the medical field and promotion of medical education, English language courses are scheduled to be taught as a required subject in the medical department. Thus, the medical professionals with high professional knowledge are called for, especially with English proficiency. However, English courses in the department of medicine in taiwan have needs among medical college students, teachers and doctors. The data will be analyzed by SPSS software and Cha-square. The findings hopefully will suggest for development of English language curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the renewal of core English vocabulary in the U.S. The author's study of the most frequent thousand items in English based on a corpus of Modern English has compared the results with earlier empirical and non-empirical works on the subject. It discusses the relevance of core vocabulary in linguistic studies, the diachronic study of core vocabulary and justification of the research, the foundations of the research and its scope, results considering word origin, the problems in the determination of sources, the stability of the core, changes in the native core and the problem of relexification.

It is commonly claimed that in English adjectives denoting colour and other physical properties, referred to here as ‘appearance/attribute’ adjectives, do not give rise to adverbs. This alleged constraint has been related to the fact that the adjectives in question are stative. In this paper I present data which show that appearance/attribute adjectives do give rise to adverbs. To be sure, such ‘appearance/attribute adverbs’ are infrequent and ‘literary’, but they began to be used to some extent in the 19th century, and their frequency has increased considerably during the last two centuries. In fact, in contexts where both adjectives and adverbs are allowed, i.e. in collocation with verbs that do not subcategorize for an adjective or adverb, adverbs have become more frequent than adjectives. This paper discusses what brought about this change, arguing that the crucial mechanism is analogy, and that conditioning factors are the argument structure of the relevant adverbs, the dynamicity of the collocating verb, positional distribution, creativity, and the existence of the same adverb forms with metaphorical meanings. I also argue that the development of appearance/attribute adverbs must be seen in relation to the so called ‘adverbialization process’ which has been sweeping the English language for at least a millennium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Speaking fundamental frequency (SFF), the average fundamental frequency (lowest frequency of a complex periodic sound) measured over the speaking time of a vocal or speech task, is a basic acoustic measure in clinical evaluation and treatment of voice disorders. Currently, there are few data on acoustic characteristics of different sociolinguistic groups, and no published data on the fundamental frequency characteristics of Arabic speech. The purpose of this study was to obtain preliminary data on the SFF characteristics of a group of normal speaking, young Arabic men. 15 native Arabic men (M age=23.5 yr., SD=2.5) as participants received identical experimental treatment. Four speech samples were collected from each one, Arabic reading, Arabic spontaneous speech, English reading, and English spontaneous speech. Speaking samples, analyzed using the Computerized Speech Lab, showed no significant difference for mean SFF between language and type of speech and none for mean SFF between languages. A significant difference in the mean SFF was found between the types of speech. The SFF used during reading was significantly higher than that for spontaneous speech. Also Arabic men had higher SFF values than those previously reported for young men in other linguistic groups. SFF then might differ among linguistic, dialectical, and social groups and such data may provide clinicians information useful in evaluation and management of voice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How is English in the global context constructed in the print media discourse of American-owned prestige press newspapers? The author zeroes in on examples of explicit reflection on the American "situation" vis-à-vis the global hegemony of English. These were drawn from a 275-text data pool generated for the author's recently published doctoral dissertation. A number of different themes emerged in the texts and excerpts analyzed here, most prominently that of English monolingualism as potentially compromising American national security and economic competitiveness. Several texts also focused on a great paradox: tremendous American linguistic diversity and widespread English monolingualism in the United States. Perhaps the most interesting theme that emerged was what the author terms wistful regret: Americans reflecting with considerable melancholy on how they saw the hegemony of English as inhibiting their incentive and opportunity to become multilingual. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

General tendencies that hold in or across languages are easy to find. For example, sentences in English usually have a subject. The subject often is the first element in the sentence. In many cases, the subject is the agent of the action expressed by the verb. Crucially, these statements are mere tendencies, not absolute laws. It is very difficult to find observable properties that hold without exception across languages. If we were to formulate these general statements as rules, these rules would often have to be broken because of a number of exceptions. In standard generative syntax, constraints are assumed to be inviolable, i.e., they must be satisfied in a grammatical sentence. In order to “save” generalizations (rules) from apparent violations (counterexamples) in the linguistic data, generally three strategies are applied: [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Community college faculty who teach developmental English classes face numerous pedagogical challenges. Graduate programs, in-service training, and professional association activities help prepare faculty for these challenges, but additional support is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article continues the presentation of new data regarding the frequencies of English letters organized by word length and letter position. Digraphs (defined here as all two-letter combinations) were the objects of study. The frequencies of digraphs were derived from a sample of 320,780 English words (including 6505 different words), which were credibly demonstrated by Whissell to be a parsimonious representation of modern English word usage. A total of 997,380 digraphs were counted and sorted by locations according to word length and digraph positions within words. As assessed by the Whissell source, the data about digraphs presented accurately represent the frequencies with which digraphs occur in modern English. How these data can provide a resource for reading research and practice is explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports a positive shift in the attitudes of some Batswana towards the local variety of English here described as Botswana English. The new attitude is the result of familiarity with the variety in the last decade or so. It is also the result of the belief that the variety is inherently good and that its users, especially children, use it in a communicatively competent manner. In addition, the respondents believe that not only is the variety not inferior to others - native or non-native - but that it can be understood by speech communities that speak English anywhere in the world. Finally, the respondents are satisfied that the variety is of a quality that can be used for educational purposes in Botswana, although the implications of its use are yet to be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents questions and answers related to English grammar. A query is raised regarding construction and meaning of the word then. Another question is regarding the usage of the phrase be able to and its distinction from the word can. There are three ways in which be able to differs from can. Can is considered to be a grammatically defective verb lacking a gerundial form. However, since be is not a defective verb, hence the sequence be able to can be used in places where can cannot be used. It is observed that a wider range of meaning is expressed by can than be able to. The past form of can, could is used both as a factual indicative concerned with past time and as a hypothetical subjunctive associated with present and future time.

The article presents a discussion on English as an international language (EIL) and interlanguage (IL). In applied linguistics and language-teaching studies EIL and IL are considered as two big developments. Both EIL and IL are connected with psycholinguistic that is language learning and sociolinguistic that is use of the language. EIL is a considered as a recognizable thing and IL is a development process. The linguistic relativity and EIL are interdependent on each other. If one has an universalist view towards natural communication systems then the whole thing is simplified and it becomes easier to understand the language. The approach of universalists and relativists are discussed distinctly to give the clear picture of their connection with EIL. To search an international language two alternatives are given. Firstly use an existing language itself or some amendments made in it or else produce an artificial language.

English language competence in Japan is poor despite much schooling in English. However, students were proficient during the early history of English in Japan. Today's problems appear to have arisen from the Government's decisions to: (1) replace foreign teachers by Japanese teachers, and (2) replace secondary school textbooks written in English with Japanese texts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Berko-type task requiring subjects to derive the present, plural, possessive, and time-extension forms of nonsense syllables was administered cross-sectionally to a population of black and white second, fourth, and seventh graders. While subject race differences decreased progressively at each advancing grade level, the magnitude of these differences remained significant throughout. These results suggest that previous data, collected longitudinally, indicating nonsignificant subject race differences by seventh grade may have resulted more from methodological circumstances, that is, nonrandom attrition, than from true population characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the works of Samuel Johnson as portrayed in the "Dictionary of the English Language of 1755." In the Preface Johnson flatly labels the idea of language fixing, so dear to his contemporaries, an "expectation which neither reason nor experience can justify." And precisely because Johnson, unlike his contemporaries, was able to recognize that "sounds are too volatile and subtile for legal restraints" and create a dictionary that would appeal to a wide variety of readers. Johnson rose above conservative reformism to newly enlightened notions about the inevitability of linguistic change.

The article presents information related to the most significant aspect of sociolinguistic variation, sometimes referred to as situational styles or registers in English as described in Martin Joos's book "The Five Clocks," and its impact on the field of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Inc. It states that materials for teaching English by the oral-aural method have in the past tended to do the learner a disservice by presenting informal spoken English as the primary form of the language, and often as the sole form. Taking the clock as his symbol of situational styles, Joos defined five main styles which he termed intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen. Each of these styles gives different kinds of information, and they are manipulated by speakers largely unconsciously in response to different social situations. The article further states that transformational and sociolinguistic considerations suggest that it is preferable to teach uncontracted, relatively formal or consultative styles of speech first. It suggests that in order to capitalize on the faster development of receptive competence, students who will use English primarily in an informal setting should receive comprehension training in informal styles and, if possible, in a variety of regional dialects.

The article focuses on the usage of should and must in English language for speakers of other languages. As a matter of fact, the choice between should and must to express inference can be described with considerable accuracy. It is regularly determined by four major criteria, namely, the time of the inference, the logical relationship between the inference and the evidence on which it is based, the probable truth or the falsity of the inference, and the degree of certainty in the mind of the speaker. Should is used in present and past inferences as well, but only in a limited range of environments. When a future inference is seen as the result of the evidence on which it is based, it has to be expressed by should. And if a future inference is based on non-causative evidence, it is expressed by must followed by be plus the -ing form of a verb to signal the future. Another type of inference requiring should is limited to the present or the past. This is what may be called a contrary-to-fact inference, an inference which turned out to have been mistaken.

Focuses on the importance of person-to-person contact in teaching with particular emphasis on the English instruction. Adoption of techniques by teachers to captivate large audiences; Productive utilization of student's ability to communicate; Role of creative writing for effective teaching.