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The increasing thirst for energy and the threat of global warming coupled with the diminishing production of fossil fuel has forced the implementation of substitute fuels from sustainable sources. As a sustainable fuel source, biofuel can be directly applied in various fields such as in automotive and industry. Moreover, biofuel also had a lower carbon footprint than traditional non-renewable fossil fuel. However, the effect of using biofuel on the industrial and transportation sector requires a more in-depth study to ensure its viability and effect on the existing infrastructure. Therefore, this study provides an overview of the application of the biofuel in two primary sectors, industrial and transportation. This study reviewed various peer-reviewed journals to provide an in-depth overview of the hurdles and opportunities in the biofuel's application. High NOx emission and lower efficiency of the pure biofuel (B100) remains the main hurdles for the broader application of the biofuel in the industrial and transportation sector. Compared to the diesel fuel, pure biofuel combustion results in lower engine performance and efficiency. However, biofuel combustion emits lower hydrocarbons, sulfur, and carbon monoxide emission than diesel fuel. Moreover, biofuel emission also has better opacity and lower particulate emission (PM2,5) than non-renewable fossil-fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that one of the features of public choice, political realism, is embedded in a time-honored Italian tradition going back to Machiavelli and perpetuated by G. Mosca and V. Pareto in their political and sociological writings. The scientific spirit, which in their era led to the foundation of various social disciplines, fostered the application of economic analysis to the political sphere. In that context, Antonio de Viti de Marco (1858-1943) formulated an economic model of the state, consisting of two types of constitutional extremes: the absolute state and the democratic state. We ask herein how that model may be reconciled to G. Mosca and Pareto’s theory of the ruling class, with which De Viti de Marco agreed. Finally, we analyze his political writings in order to reconstruct his interpretation of collusion, rent seeking and “clientelism”, i.e., the redistribution of extracted rent, which takes place in the form of discretionary allocations of public jobs, public contracts and other corporative favors. Collusion is the use of democratic institutions by the ruling classes in order to gain monopoly power. While collusion is the basis of rent creation, rent extraction is not the final goal of politicians; rather, it is a means of strengthening electoral support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of a 118-kW tractor fuelled by pure biodiesel was monitored during a long-term field experiment with approximately 800 h of engine function. The objective was to demonstrate that B100, a pure biodiesel fuel, is a viable alternative to traditional diesel oil in terms of long-term mechanical reliability. A bench test on the new engine, performed by attaching a test stand to the power take-off of the tractor, showed an expected reduction in power (-9%) and torque (-7%) and an increase in specific consumption (+13%) when biodiesel was used as a complete substitute to diesel oil. Furthermore, with the same setup, the exhaust gas had a Bosch smoke index equal to 50% of the value for the same engine fuelled with diesel oil. After these initial tests, the tractor was set up for normal field operations, in which both the engine curves and lubricant quality were periodically monitored. These surveys indicated no significant reduction in engine performance; however, the lubricant was consequently diluted and contaminated by biodiesel, which caused the lubricant properties to considerably worsen. However, on the basis of the chemical-physical analysis, reducing the oil change interval from 200 h (manufacturer's indications for the engine when operating with diesel oil) to 100 h would compensate for this progressive quality decline. At the end of the trials, the engine was disassembled to check the condition of its components; wear and lacquer-like coating phenomena were observed, and their levels were acceptable. The obtained results demonstrated that B100 can effectively substitute for diesel oil in a standard compression-ignition engine: the power change is not perceptible during normal operation of a tractor, and no particular problem will arise in the engine during its life if the lubricant is changed every 100 h. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Biofuels have received special research interest, driven by concerns over high fuel prices, security of energy supplies, global climate change as well as the search of opportunities for rural economic development. This work examines the production of biodiesel derived from the transesterification of crude rapeseed oil, one of the most important sources of biodiesel in Europe, paying special attention to the environmental profile-associated to the manufacture life cycle (i.e., cradle-to-gate perspective). Methods: To do so, a Spanish company with an average annual biodiesel production of 300,000 t was assessed in detail. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study covers the whole life cycle, from the production of the crude rapeseed oil to the biodiesel production and storage. The inventory data for the foreground system consisted of average annual data obtained by on-site measurements in the company, and background data were taken from databases. Seven impact categories have been assessed in detail: abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming, ozone layer depletion, land competition, and photochemical oxidant formation. An energy analysis was carried out based on the cumulative nonrenewable fossil and nuclear energy demand as an additional impact category. Furthermore, well-to-wheels environmental characterization results were estimated and compared per ton-kilometer for the biodiesel (B100) and the conventional diesel so as to point out the environmental drawbacks and strengths of using biodiesel as transport fuel in a 28 t lorry. Results and discussion: The results showed that the cultivation of the rapeseed was the main key issue in environmental terms (68 %-100 % depending on the category) mainly because of fertilizer doses and intensive agricultural practices required. With regard to the biorefinery production process, pretreatment and transesterification sections considerably contribute to the environmental profile mostly due to electricity and chemical requirements. Concerning the well-to-wheels comparison, using B100 derived from rapeseed oil instead of petroleum-based diesel would reduce nonrenewable energy dependence (−20 %), GHG emissions (−74 %), and ozone layer depletion (−44 %) but would increase acidification (+59 %), eutrophication (+214 %), photochemical smog (+119 %), and land competition. Conclusions: The information presented in this study could help to promote the use of renewable transport biofuels. However, the extensive implementation of biodiesel (particularly rapeseed oil-derived biodiesel) in our society is enormously complex with many issues involved not only from environmental but also economical and social points of view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]