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This survey analysed 71 bottled water brands in Tehran, Iran. The laboratory analysis was investigated for ten physicochemical parameters and 16 elements, including heavy metals comprising (bicarbonate, fluoride, chloride, nitrate, nitrite, sulphate, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), total hardness (TH), Na, Mg, Ca, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, Ba, and, Zn). Statistical analysis were performed with R software. The water quality index (WQI) approach was applied to investigate water quality, the carcinogen risk (CR) and hazard index (HI) methods were used for assessing the health risks, and the cumulative impacts of heavy metals were evaluated with contamination degree (Cd) and heavy metal evaluation index (HEI). The results showed that among the physicochemical parameters, EC, TDS, TH, and HCO3 and heavy metals like Sr > Zn > Cu > Ni had the Highest values. The WQI value in totals was 91.86 and had good quality class, and the order was good (60.56%), poor (35.21%), and very poor bottled water (4.22%). The correlation results demonstrated that WQI ~ Fe and Zn ~ Mn had significant correlation coefficients (r = 1). Moreover, there is a significant correlation between TH with Mg and Ca and also between HCO3 with EC, TH, and Ca, and then between SO4 with Na. Carcinogen risk for Cr in children and adults was 2 × 10−4 and 6 × 10−4, respectively. The responsible pollutants in non-carcinogen risk assessment were F and NO3, and their HI was greater than one in adult and child subgroups. The values of Cd and HEI were lower than critical limits. Also, Pb had a significant correlation with Cd and HEI (r = 1). This study revealed that bottled water contains minerals and may possess heavy metals, which pose significant human health risks, especially for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: "Carbon footprint" (CF) is a direct measure of greenhouse gas emissions caused by a defined activity and can demonstrate global warming effects. The emissions of Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in water projects start from the primary water sources, followed by transportation, construction, and operation phases in the final treatment plants. Due to their possible environmental impacts, the water treatment plants equipped with Reverse Osmosis (RO) units will be investigated for their carbon footprint. Methods: The research question is "What is the carbon footprint of reverse osmosis in water treatment plants?". The literature search in this study will be divided into two sequential sections; in the first section, the search will be limited to Scopus, Science Direct, EMBASE, and PubMed databases. The keywords of water, "water treatment plants", "water purification", desalination, "reverse osmosis", RO, "carbon emission", "carbon dioxide/CO2 emission", "carbon footprint", "Life Cycle Assessment" and, LCA will be used. The carbon footprint of RO will be expressed based on the direct and indirect effects based on RO capacity. In the second section, the internet and specialist search will be done, and the search will be updated. No date limitation will be considered, and the main search will be done in English. When the search is completed, the screening will be performed. After removing duplicates, the title and abstract will be examined. The full text will be read if the title and abstract are not helpful for decision-making. In addition, the bibliography and references will proceed after the full-text screening. The Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) Critical Appraisal Tool will be used for risk of bias checking and study validity assessment. After full-text evaluation, data will be collected and categorized by two authors. If there is enough data, meta-analysis will be performed. Systematic review registration PROSPERO CRD42022327572. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main route of fluoride uptake is drinking water. Fluoride absorption in the acceptable range (0.5–1.5 mg L−1) is suitable for the body, but its too much consumption can have irreversible health effects. To compare fluoride concentration with the WHO guidelines, 112 water samples were taken from groundwater aquifers in 22 villages of Garmsar County, the central part of Iran, during 2018 to 2019. Fluoride concentration was measured by the SPANDS method and its non-carcinogenic impacts were calculated using EDI and HQ. The statistical population was divided into four categories of infant, children, teenagers, and adults. Linear regression and Spearman rank correlation coefficient tests were used to investigate the relationships between the well's depth and fluoride concentration in the water samples. The annual mean concentrations of fluoride in 2018 and 2019 were 0.75 and 0.64 mg L−1and, the fluoride mean concentration in the samples classifying the cold and hot seasons of the studied years was 0.709 and 0.689 mg L−1, respectively. The amount of fluoride in 27% of the samples in both years was less than the acceptable minimum (0.5 mg L−1). Also, 11% of the samples in 2018 (6 samples) had fluoride levels higher than 1.5 mg L−1. The HQ showed that the children were vulnerable; teenagers and adults were in the next ranks, respectively. Statistical tests showed a reverse and significant correlation (R2 = – 0.02, β < 0.0001) between well depth and fluoride content. The border between the usefulness/harmfulness of fluoride is very narrow and requires extensive studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of drinking water, in addition to the presence of physicochemical parameters, depends on the type and geographical location of water sources. In this study, groundwater quality was investigated by sampling total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), Cl– , Ca2+, and Mg2+ parameters in 13 sites, and 40 water samples were sent to the laboratory. Electrometric, titration, and spectrophotometer methods were used. In the next step, the water quality index (WQI) was used to investigate the impact and weight of each parameter in the groundwater. The results showed that only the mean of magnesium ion (40.88 mg L–1) was lower than the guidelines of World Health Organization (WHO). Interpreting the WQI based on the WHO guidelines showed that the statuses of 21, 11, and 7 samples were very poor, poor, and average quality, respectively, and one sample had excellent quality. Among the studied parameters, the means of EC (2,087.49 mS cm–1) and Cl– (1,015.87 mg L–1) exceeded the global and national limits. Classifying water quality about TH was very hard (87.5%), hard (7.5%), and moderate (5%), respectively. Based on the geographical distribution, the drinking water index in sites 4 and 11 did not have acceptable quality. Chloride ion was identified as the responsible pollutant and the most important ion for raising the index. The outputs of statistical tests and Spearman correlation had significant and direct correlation (p < 0.05, r > 0.7) between TDS, EC, and chloride, EC and chloride, as well as TH, Ca2+, and Mg2+. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Groundwater is a viable alternative when access to surface water resources is limited. Iron and manganese are known ions in soil and naturally in groundwater sources. However, human activities also are responsible. To identifying the best module for removing manganese and iron in the water treatment plant (WTP) of Mazandaran, 516 samples were taken from raw and treated water. The concentration of manganese, iron, was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and turbidity was used with the nephelometry method. The water pollution index (WPI) was applied for categorizing the status of pollution in treated water. The effect of seasonal temperature and backwashing (At flow rates of 3.5, 9.2, and 15.3 m h-1) on the sand filter efficiency was also investigated. The highest concentrations of manganese, iron, and turbidity in raw water were 0.744, 6.70 mg L-1, and 41.8 NTU, and in treated water were 0.67, 1.09 mg L-1, and 5.58 NTU, respectively. The mean concentration of manganese and iron in raw and treated water were 0.24 ± 0.1, 0.93 ± 0.91, 0.105 ± 0.06 and 0.18 ± 0.14 mg L-1 respectively. The WPI statuses in drinking water were excellent for manganese and iron in 95.74 and 53.88 % of the samples and very poor in 1.16 and 12.01 % of the samples, respectively, and its classification for drinking water for manganese and iron was excellent ˃ good ˃ extremely polluted ˃ polluted and the concentration of iron was more than manganese in treated water. The study of temperature's effect on sand filters showed that the removal efficiency in warm seasons was higher than in cold seasons. Also, the turbulence in the backwash with the 9.2 m h− 1 rates, is lesser than other speeds, and in this flow, after 270 s, the turbidity decreases to less than 10 NTU. Spearman correlation comparison showed that the parameters amounts after filtration decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.0001) in comparison to raw water. The results showed that module #1 that used open-aeration and chlorine as oxidations, was most effective in removing iron and manganese. In the end, the WTP couldn't diminish the parameters completely and need subsidiary units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to an improved water supply is essential for health. The water safety plan (WSP) approach developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) can provide safe drinking water. This study evaluated the progress of the Garmsar drinking water supply system (DWSS) through WSP. First, using the WSP quality assurance (QA) tool and its checklist, the implementation rate of this approach was examined. After classifying the most critical risks, the reliability of the risks was obtained with intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC), and then the risks were prioritized and evaluated by the semi-quantitative matrix recommended by WHO. The results showed that 80.4% of the drinking water was supplied from the system under study, and six persons (13.95%) participated in the implementation of the WSP team. The "system description" and "verification" steps with scores of 75% and 65%, respectively, had the highest levels of compliance, and the "supporting programs" and "review of the WSP" steps with scores of 29% and 25%, respectively, had the least consistent with WSP. The points obtained by the catchment, treatment, distribution, and point of use were 43%, 38%, 35%, and 35%, respectively. Risk identification demonstrated that "direct discharge of wastewater/ sewage in the sources by the villagers living in the basin in the catchment area" had poor reliability (ICC = 0.25), and so it was discarded. The risk assessment of the DWSS identified the "microbial contamination, pesticides, and fertilizer caused by agricultural use and activities in the catchment area" as high-risk. The lack of implementation of some steps in this program prevented the realization of many goals of this approach. The awareness of drinking water supply organizations with the aims and benefits of this program and increasing the skill of the WSP team can enhance these conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]