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Today, electricity tariffs play an essential role in the electricity retail market as they are the key factor for the decision-making of end-users. Additionally, tariffs are necessary for increasing competition in the electricity market. They have a great impact on load energy management. Moreover, tariffs are not taken as a fixed approach to expense calculations only but are influenced by many other factors, such as electricity generation, transmission, distribution costs, and governmental taxation. Thus, electricity pricing differs significantly between countries or between regions within a country. Improper tariff calculation methodologies in some areas have led to high-power losses, unnecessary investments, increased operational expenses, and environmental pollution due to the non-use of available sustainable energy resources. Due to the importance of electricity tariffs, the authors of this paper have been inspired to review all electricity tariff designs used worldwide. In this paper, 103 references from the last ten years are reviewed, showing a detailed comparison between different tariff designs and demonstrating their main advantages and drawbacks. Additionally, this paper reviews the utilized electricity tariffs in different countries, focusing on one of the most important countries in the Middle East and North Africa regions (Egypt). Finally, some recommended solutions based upon the carried-out research are discussed and applied to the case study for electricity tariff improvement in this region. This review paper can help researchers become aware of all the electricity tariff designs used in various countries, which can lead to their design improvements by using suitable software technologies. Additionally, it will increase end-users' awareness in terms of deciding on the best electricity retail markets as well as optimizing their energy usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explored the link between energy consumption and carbon emissions in North Africa through an Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) framework. Panel data extracted from the data base of the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 1990–2015 were used for the study. In the analytical process, more modern econometric techniques that are vigorous to cross-sectional dependence and slope heterogeneity were employed. From the findings, the studied panel was heterogeneous and cross-sectionally dependent. Also, all the series were first differenced stationary and cointegrated in the long-run. Further, the Augmented Mean Group (AMG) and the Common Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) estimators affirmed energy consumption as a significantly positive determinant of CO2 emissions. Also, urbanization and foreign direct investments promoted the emanation of CO2 in the block. Finally, an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions was disclosed, validating the EKC hypothesis. On the causal connections amid the series, there was a bidirectional causality between energy consumption and CO2 emissions, economic growth and CO2 emanations, and urbanization and CO2 emissions. Lastly, a unidirectional causality from foreign direct investments to CO2 emissions was unfolded. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that, the countries should advocate for the consumption of renewable energies like wind, solar, hydro, biomass and biofuels among others. This will help to reduce the rate of emissions in the bloc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an energy efficiency assessment of 46 African countries and analyzes possible bidirectional relationship between energy efficiency and economic development within a three-stage framework. In the first stage, energy efficiency is measured within a total factor framework using the slack-based measure with undesirable output and sub-regional comparisons are done. The second stage assesses the determinants of energy efficiency in Africa by way of a bootstrapped truncated regression. The third stage tests the reverse causal relationship between energy efficiency and economic development using 2-stage least squares. The results showed African countries to be on average, 56% energy efficient within the study period. Other African sub-regions could adopt the energy efficiency policies of North Africa as benchmark to improve energy efficiency. Economic development and technological progress are found to have significant positive effects on energy efficiency of African countries, while higher energy prices lead to higher inefficiency. Also, a bi-causal relationship is found to exist between total factor energy efficiency and economic development, giving support to the concept of sustainable development and confirming the International Energy Agency's assertion on the positive macroeconomic impacts of energy efficiency. African countries are therefore, encouraged to invest in energy efficiency technologies and policies to drive sustainable economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental challenges in MENA countries deserve more attention as they are pursuing economic growth and expanding urbanization and the geographical position of these countries make them more exposed to the outcomes of climate change. In this context, this paper focuses on the proposed solutions for the climate change problem that are renewable energies and the use of fossil fuel effectively in the context of growing urbanization in the MENA region. Indeed, using the GMM estimator for 18 MENA countries during the period 2000-2018, we try to quantify the magnitude of the impact of population, economic prosperity, urbanization, fossil fuels, energy efficiency, and renewable energies, especially solar, wind, and hydropower energies on CO2 emissions. Results allow the environmental Kuznets curve validation and highlight the contribution of energy efficiency in improving the environment. However, the used proportion of renewables in the energy mix does not significantly affect environmental quality. Moreover, solar energy contributes to emissions reduction. While the adopted level of wind and hydropower energy does not allow these countries to improve their environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship among carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, GDP, and energy in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries by using a Responsiveness Scores (RS) approach. Empirical results over the period 1971–2013 suggest that GDP per capita and energy consumption show positive RSs, while trade and urban population negative ones. Moreover, energy consumption and urban population reveal moderate increasing returns to scale, while GDP per capita exhibits decreasing positive returns. Furthermore, three-way factors analysis sets out that most of the countries lays on regions with moderate negative Total Responsiveness Scores (TRS). This means that when all factors are jointly increased, CO2 emissions have a moderate decrease. In addition, some GCC countries present a different pattern compared to the average pattern of MENA countries. Finally, radar plots indicate that, overall, RS pattern over factors is moderately heterogeneous within GCC countries, with larger variability appearing in the response to urban population and GDP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigated the causal relationship between energy consumption (EC), carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and economic growth for three selected North African countries. It uses a panel co-integration analysis to determine this econometric relationship using data during 1980–2012. Recently developed tests for panel unit root and co-integration tests are applied. In order to test the Granger causality, a panel Vector Error Correction Model is used. The conservation hypothesis is found; the short run panel results show that there is a unidirectional relationship from economic growth to EC. In addition, there is a unidirectional causality running from economic growth to CO2emissions. A unidirectional relationship from EC to CO2emissions is detected. Findings shown that there is a big interdependence between EC and economic growth in the long run, which indicates the level of economic activity and EC mutually influence each other in that a high level of economic growth leads to a high level of EC and vice versa. Similarly, a unidirectional causal relationship from EC to CO2emissions is detected. This study opens up new insights for policy-makers to design comprehensive economic, energy and environmental policy to keep the economic green and a sustainable environment, implying that these three variables could play an important role in the adjustment process as the system changes from the long run equilibrium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental protection and sustainable development are inextricably linked. This linkage is particularly crucial for North Africa, where the use of carbon-intensive energies has created environmental and economic challenges. Amazingly, limited studies on the connection between energy consumption and environmental quality has been conducted to help with policy options to minimize the above menace in the region. Inspired by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations, this study contributed to filling this gap by examining the energy consumption–CO2 emission nexus in North Africa for the period 1990 to 2018. In order to account for cross-sectional dependence, endogeneity, and slope heterogeneity that are mostly ignored by some conventional econometric techniques, this exploration adopted second generation econometric methods that are robust to the aforestated issues in its analysis. From the results, the studied panel was heterogeneous and cross-sectionally correlated. Also, the investigated series were first differenced stationary and cointegrated in the long-run. The cross-sectional augmented autoregressive distributed lag (CS-ARDL) and the dynamic common correlated effects mean group (DCCEMG) estimators were adopted to explore the elasticities of the explanatory variables and from the results, energy consumption worsened environmental quality in the region due to its positive influence on CO2 emissions. Also, urbanization and economic growth increased the rate of CO2 emissions in the countries. On the causal connections amid the series, bidirectional causalities between energy consumption and CO2 emissions, between urbanization and CO2 emission, between economic growth and CO2 emissions, and between urbanization and energy consumption were unraveled. Finally, unidirectional causalities from economic growth to energy consumption, and from economic growth to urbanization were confirmed. It is recommended that countries in North Africa should shift to the consumption of clean energies to help them attain low-carbon economy. Unavailability of data for some periods was the major limitation of the study. Therefore, in future when such data become available, similar explorations could be conducted to confirm the robustness of the study's results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ground-breaking research on the electricity sector and its effects on energy efficiency (EE) in advanced and emerging economies are crucial in developing a futuristic pathway, leading to self-sustainable energy use. Therefore, this research investigates the functions of sustainable investments to ensure EE in advanced and emerging economies in a decade, ranging from 2008 to 2018, by applying the data envelopment analysis (DEA) method. The findings reveal a lower degree of EE in advanced and emerging economies (0.44), discovering only seven nations, saving energy with DEA and the West Asia and North Africa groups as the top energy savers. Moreover, the mean EE ratio of the advanced and emerging countries plummeted, dating back to 2013, whereas financial investment positively impacts EE. Similarly, the study perceives how open structures in the nations' economic systems can advance ecological conditions by reducing pollution levels and graft enable EE and reduce pollution levels. Simultaneously, natural resources and technological advancements can accelerate the course of EE and ecological dimensions. Therefore, analysis of causality reinforce the response hypotheses between EE, Environmental carbon emissions levels, financial advancements, graft control, proceeds from mineral resources, technological creativity, commerce, and localization of industries, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption plays a crucial role in achieving the three pillars of the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Moreover, the increasing impact of energy use in the development of North Africa motivates the authors to examine its direct impact on environmental degradation. Thus, the key objective of this investigation is to analyze the imperative impact of energy consumption on environmental degradation within the framework of urbanization and economic globalization. A fundamental hypothesis of the study includes that energy consumption and urbanization positively affect environmental degradation. The investigation employed the Cross-Sectional – Autoregressive Distributed Lag model and found that energy consumption significantly increases environmental degradation. However, economic globalization decreases environmental degradation. Moreover, urbanization showed inconsequential findings, but the study found that African countries hold the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. The Dumitrescu-Hurlin causality model verifies the causality effect between energy consumption, economic globalization, urbanization, economic growth, and ecological footprints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the relationship among CO2 emissions, exports of goods and services, and foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows in countries in the MENA region over the period 2002–2014. To that end, spatial panel simultaneous equations model based on the adjacency-based and distance-based weight matrices was used. The findings indicated that the results of spatial panel simultaneous equations with distance-based weight matrix were more fitting than those with adjacency-based weight matrix. The empirical findings approved a two-way linkage between CO2 emissions and exports and a one-way linkage between CO2 emissions and FDI inflows and also, between FDI inflows and exports. Furthermore, the existence of the spatial correlations among the CO2 emissions, exports and FDI inflows across countries was confirmed. It was further indicated that fossil fuel energy consumption was the main determinant of CO2 emissions, and accession to the WTO played a major role in enhancing exports and FDI inflows. The present study can provide new insights for policymakers and planners to not only consider the economic benefits of exporting goods and services and FDI inflows, but also attend their environmental impacts on local and neighboring countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) show that the Maghreb region is threatened by climate change, which could significantly increase the relevance of water development policies, given that economic growth of the majority of Maghreb countries is closely related to water resources. To face this threat, the Maghreb countries (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) have adopted climate change adaptation strategies that highlighted many alternatives to resolve water scarcity and the threat of climate change. However, the adopted alternatives and solutions include economic irrigation options and non-conventional resources with high energy consumption such as water desalination and water reuse. Therefore, developing these alternatives will increase the energy consumption in the water sector. The aim of this paper is to analyze the strategic issues of the integrated development of the water and energy sectors, as well as the level of interactions and nexus between water and energy that are considered in the sectors policy management and planning in the Maghreb countries. The analysis is focused on the case of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia and aims to identify some strategic recommendations and orientations to promote an integrated development of the water and energy system. The SWOT analysis (SWOT standing for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threat) is used to undertake this analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of economies and energy usage can significantly impact the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the factors that determine CO2 emissions in MENA under the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) framework by applying novel quantile techniques on data for CO2 emissions, real income, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, and urbanization over the period from 1990 to 2015. The results from the estimations suggest that renewable energy consumption significantly reduces the level of emissions; furthermore, its impact increases with higher quantiles. In addition, non-renewable energy consumption increases CO2 emissions, while its magnitude decreases with higher quantiles. The empirical results also confirm the validity of EKC hypothesis for the panel of MENA economies. Policymakers in the region should implement policies and regulations to promote the adoption and use of renewable energy to mitigate carbon emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population growth, climate change and urbanization are the main challenges to meet the water demand for the next decades. The global gap between sustainable water supply and water demand is expected to grow above 2,700 km³ by 2030, equivalent to 40% of total water demand. Desalination is an established method to make fresh water--mostly as a last resort. Its contribution to water supply is minor on a global scale. In some regions, though, it is difficult to imagine a sufficient water supply without desalination. But is this technical fix sustainable? In its main part, this paper sheds light on the major issues that call the sustainability of desalination into question. Examination of a number of criteria indicates that the energy demand for desalination is by far the most important issue. Further relevant impacts are wastewater discharges, waste disposal and visual impact. In retrospect, it is noted that energy demand has already shaped today's desalination market, since energy-efficient membrane-based desalination technology has gained market share compared with the more energy-intensive thermal desalination technologies. This development has been supported by a substantial decrease in the specific energy demand of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants. As a result, state-of-the-art SWRO plants require approximately 3-5 kWh/m ³ compared to some 10 kWh/m³ or more two or three decades ago. But almost all desalination plants are powered by fossil energy resources. Hence, using renewable energy (RE) resources instead would be a big step forward towards sustainability. Case studies prepared for three projects in the MENA region demonstrate that selecting RE sources for a desalination plant is economically feasible when compared to non-subsidized fossil fuel. This paper is based on our viewpoint as engineering consultants. It is a summary of studies, reports and surveys conducted on this issue by us in past years. It is intended to give an idea of the options that are available today to make seawater desalination sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid urbanization, coupled with income growth, will inevitably cause the residential energy consumption in the North Africa region to continue to increase, with adverse effects on the climate, human health, and the economy. In these regards, this paper explores the relationship between residential carbon dioxide emissions (RCO2), urbanization, economic growth, and residential energy use in four North African countries (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Egypt) over the period 1990–2016. To do this, we used the bounds cointegration and the Toda–Yamamoto Granger causality test. The existence of cointegration relationships was confirmed for the four countries. In the long run, the environment Kuznets curve relationship between increased income per capita and RCO2 emissions was verified for only Morocco and Tunisia. The causality analysis also reveals a combination of neutral, unidirectional, and bidirectional relationships for all countries. The RCO2 emissions have not proved to be a limiting factor in any country's economic growth. The findings of this study certainly contribute to advancing the existing literature by emphasizing the income–pollution nexus in African countries. Policy makers and government regulators should implement the necessary policies that accelerate the development of renewable technologies to drive sustainable cooling and heating as well as water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrofitting heritage buildings for energy efficiency is not always easy where cultural values are highly concerned, which requires an integrated approach. This paper aims to assess the potential of applying passive retrofitting scenarios to enhance indoor thermal comfort of heritage buildings in North Africa, as a hot climate, a little attention has been paid to retrofit built heritage in that climate. A mixed-mode ventilation residential building in Cairo, Egypt, was selected as a case study. The study combines field measurements and observations with energy simulations. A simulation model was created and calibrated on the basis of monitored data in the reference building, and the thermal comfort range was evaluated. Sets of passive retrofitting scenarios were proposed. The results (based on the ASHRAE-55-2020 adaptive comfort model at 90% acceptability limits) showed that the annual thermal comfort in the reference building is very low, i.e., 31.4%. The application of hybrid passive retrofitting scenarios significantly impacts indoor thermal comfort in the reference building, where annual comfort hours of up to 66% can be achieved. The originality of this work lies in identifying the most effective energy measures to improve indoor thermal comfort that are optimal from a conservation point of view. The findings contribute to set a comprehensive retrofitting tool that avoids potential risks for the conservation of residential heritage buildings in hot climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two pilot-scale membrane bioreactors were operated alongside a full-sized activated sludge plant in Tunisia in order to compare specific energy demand and treated water quality. Energy consumption rates were measured for the complete membrane bioreactor systems and for their different components. Specific energy demand was measured for the systems and compared with the activated sludge plant, which operated at around 3 kWh m-3. A model was developed for each membrane bioreactor based on both dynamic and steady-state mass balances, microbial kinetics and stoichiometry, and energy balance. Energy consumption was evaluated as a function of mixed-liquor suspended solids concentration, net permeate fluxes, and the resultant treated water quality. This work demonstrates the potential for using membrane bioreactors in decentralised domestic water treatment in North Africa, at energy consumption levels similar or lower than conventional activated sludge systems, with the added benefit of producing treated water suitable for unrestricted crop irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]