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Environmental challenges in MENA countries deserve more attention as they are pursuing economic growth and expanding urbanization and the geographical position of these countries make them more exposed to the outcomes of climate change. In this context, this paper focuses on the proposed solutions for the climate change problem that are renewable energies and the use of fossil fuel effectively in the context of growing urbanization in the MENA region. Indeed, using the GMM estimator for 18 MENA countries during the period 2000-2018, we try to quantify the magnitude of the impact of population, economic prosperity, urbanization, fossil fuels, energy efficiency, and renewable energies, especially solar, wind, and hydropower energies on CO2 emissions. Results allow the environmental Kuznets curve validation and highlight the contribution of energy efficiency in improving the environment. However, the used proportion of renewables in the energy mix does not significantly affect environmental quality. Moreover, solar energy contributes to emissions reduction. While the adopted level of wind and hydropower energy does not allow these countries to improve their environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population growth, climate change and urbanization are the main challenges to meet the water demand for the next decades. The global gap between sustainable water supply and water demand is expected to grow above 2,700 km³ by 2030, equivalent to 40% of total water demand. Desalination is an established method to make fresh water--mostly as a last resort. Its contribution to water supply is minor on a global scale. In some regions, though, it is difficult to imagine a sufficient water supply without desalination. But is this technical fix sustainable? In its main part, this paper sheds light on the major issues that call the sustainability of desalination into question. Examination of a number of criteria indicates that the energy demand for desalination is by far the most important issue. Further relevant impacts are wastewater discharges, waste disposal and visual impact. In retrospect, it is noted that energy demand has already shaped today's desalination market, since energy-efficient membrane-based desalination technology has gained market share compared with the more energy-intensive thermal desalination technologies. This development has been supported by a substantial decrease in the specific energy demand of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants. As a result, state-of-the-art SWRO plants require approximately 3-5 kWh/m ³ compared to some 10 kWh/m³ or more two or three decades ago. But almost all desalination plants are powered by fossil energy resources. Hence, using renewable energy (RE) resources instead would be a big step forward towards sustainability. Case studies prepared for three projects in the MENA region demonstrate that selecting RE sources for a desalination plant is economically feasible when compared to non-subsidized fossil fuel. This paper is based on our viewpoint as engineering consultants. It is a summary of studies, reports and surveys conducted on this issue by us in past years. It is intended to give an idea of the options that are available today to make seawater desalination sustainable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]