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Background/objectives: The porcine intestinal epithelium plays a fundamental role as a defence interface against pathogens. Its alteration can cause severe inflammatory conditions and diseases. Hyperosmotic stress under physiological conditions and upon pathogen challenge can cause malabsorption. Different cell types counteract the osmolarity increase by accumulating organic osmolytes such as betaine, taurine, and myo-inositol through specific transporters. Betaine is known for protecting cells from hyperosmotic stress and has positive effects when fed to pigs. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the modulation of osmolyte transporters gene expression in IPEC-J2 during osmolarity changes and assess the effects of betaine. Methods: IPEC-J2 were seeded in transwells, where differentiate as a polarized monolayer. Epithelial cell integrity (TEER), oxidative stress (NO) and gene expression of osmolyte transporters, tight junction proteins (TJp) and pro-inflammatory cytokines were evaluated. Results: Cells treated with NaCl hyperosmolar medium (500 mOsm/L) showed a TEER decrease at 3 h and detachment within 24 h, associated with an osmolyte transporters reduction. IPEC-J2 treated with mannitol hyperosmolar medium (500 mOsm/L) upregulated taurine (TauT), myo-inositol (SMIT) and betaine (BGT1) transporters expression. A decrease in TJp expression was associated with a TEER decrease and an increase in TNFα, IL6, and IL8. Betaine could attenuate the hyperosmolarity-induced reduction in TEER and TJp expression, the NO increase and cytokines upregulation. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the expression of osmolyte transporters in IPEC-J2, which was upregulated upon hyperosmotic treatment. Betaine counteracts changes in intracellular osmolarity by contributing to maintaining the epithelial barrier function and reducing the inflammatory condition. Compatible osmolytes may provide beneficial effects in therapies for diseases characterized by inflammation and TJp-related dysfunctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upon glucose starvation, S. cerevisiae shows a dramatic alteration in transcription, resulting in wide-scale repression of most genes and activation of some others. This coincides with an arrest of cellular proliferation. A subset of such cells enters quiescence, a reversible non-dividing state. Here, we demonstrate that the conserved transcriptional corepressor Tup1 is critical for transcriptional repression after glucose depletion. We show that Tup1-Ssn6 binds new targets upon glucose depletion, where it remains as the cells enter the G0 phase of the cell cycle. In addition, we show that Tup1 represses a variety of glucose metabolism and transport genes. We explored how Tup1 mediated repression is accomplished and demonstrated that Tup1 coordinates with the Rpd3L complex to deacetylate H3K23. We found that Tup1 coordinates with Isw2 to affect nucleosome positions at glucose transporter HXT family genes during G0. Finally, microscopy revealed that a quarter of cells with a Tup1 deletion contain multiple DAPI puncta. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the role of Tup1 in transcriptional reprogramming in response to environmental cues leading to the quiescent state. Author summary: Quiescence is a very common and important state for the cells of many organisms, where cell functions 'pause' but can resume when the right conditions are met. Most microbes exist in a quiescent state and will start growing and dividing again in the presence of nutrients or other cues. In mammals, a quiescent state is used to maintain stem cell populations and cancer cells often evade treatment by entering quiescence. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an excellent model for studying quiescence because we can easily isolate populations of quiescent cells. Since budding yeast share many proteins and cellular pathways with higher organisms, our findings are applicable to more complex systems, which may be relevant to maintenance of healthy cells or provide insight to treating disease states. We know that a hallmark of quiescence is reduced transcription, and we are interested in how this change occurs. We have examined how the protein Tup1 causes changes in gene expression in cellular quiescence. We also looked at how Tup1-dependent changes depend on other chromatin interacting factors, such as the histone deacetylase Rpd3, the transcription factor Xbp1, or the chromatin remodeling protein Isw2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine mastitis is among the most serious disease in the dairy industry and brings huge economic losses due to the decrease in milk quality and quantity. Betaine, a naturally occurring compound, possesses several pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant ability, but whether betaine has protective effects on bovine mastitis is unknown. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of betaine on mastitis and further discover its feasible molecular mechanism in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMECs). BMECs were pre-treated with or without betaine or LPS. Cell viability was measured with CCK-8 to examine the cytotoxicity. The levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines were measured by ELISA kits. Western blotting was used to explore the regulation of genes associated with inflammatory and oxidative stress genes. The results showed that LPS treatment significantly increased the production of pro-inflammation (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα), enhanced malondialdehyde (MDA) content, reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity, and markedly up-regulated the protein expression of COX2 and iNOS (p < 0.05). However, betaine pre-treatment remarkably restored the above phenomenon compared with the LPS group. Additionally, we also observed that betaine exposure significantly restricted LPS-induced the phosphorylation of IκB and NF-κB p65 (p < 0.05). Moreover, pre-treatment of BMECs with betaine abolished LPS-induced the increase of Nrf2 and HO-1 protein levels (p < 0.05). These results confirm that betaine can alleviate LPS-induced inflammatory response and oxidative damage by modulating NF-κB and Nrf2 signalling pathways. Betaine alleviated the production of pro-inflammation cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα) in BMECs after LPS stimulation. Betaine restored LPS-elicited nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signalling pathway activity. Betaine recovered LPS-induced the activity of SOD and GSH-Px and MDA content. Betaine inhibited the increase of protein expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 challenged with LPS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of traces of life beyond Earth (e.g., Mars, icy moons) is a challenging task because terrestrial chemical-based molecules may be destroyed by the harsh conditions experienced on extraterrestrial planetary surfaces. For this reason, studying the effects on biomolecules of extremophilic microorganisms through astrobiological ground-based space simulation experiments is significant to support the interpretation of the data that will be gained and collected during the ongoing and future space exploration missions. Here, the stability of the biomolecules of the cryptoendolithic black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus , grown on two Martian regolith analogues and on Antarctic sandstone, were analysed through a metabolomic approach, after its exposure to Science Verification Tests (SVTs) performed in the frame of the European Space Agency (ESA) Biology and Mars Experiment (BIOMEX) project. These tests are building a set of ground-based experiments performed before the space exposure aboard the International Space Station (ISS). The analysis aimed to investigate the effects of different mineral mixtures on fungal colonies and the stability of the biomolecules synthetised by the fungus under simulated Martian and space conditions. The identification of a specific group of molecules showing good stability after the treatments allow the creation of a molecular database that should support the analysis of future data sets that will be collected in the ongoing and next space exploration missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate the utility of 13N-ammonia PET/CT imaging in the differential diagnosis of gliomas and brain inflammations.Methods: 13N-ammonia PET/CT imaging data of 77 patients with gliomas and 34 patients with brain inflammations were retrospectively analyzed. No patients received any treatment before 13N-ammonia imaging. All the patients were diagnosed by stereotactic biopsy or clinical follow-up. Visual and semi-quantitative analysis was performed to analyze the results of 13N-ammonia imaging. Finally, the uptake ratios of each lesion were calculated and its differences among different groups were tested with one-way ANOVA.Results: 29.4% inflammations, 51.6% low-grade gliomas and 91.3% high-grade gliomas were positive by visual analysis in 13N-ammonia imaging. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy for the diagnosis of gliomas were 75.3%, 55.8% and 67.8%, respectively. As for semi-quantitative analysis, the T/G ratios of inflammatory lesions, low-grade gliomas and high-grade gliomas were 0.88 ± 0.24, 1.04 ± 0.43 and 1.43 ± 0.49, respectively. One-way ANOVA revealed that the T/G ratios of high-grade gliomas were significantly higher than those of low-grade gliomas and inflammations (P < 0.05), but there was no statistical difference between low-grade gliomas and inflammations (P = 0.118). Among the inflammatory lesions, T/G ratios were not statistically different between infectious and demyelinating lesions (P > 0.05). ROC curve analysis showed that the optimal cut-off value of T/G ratio in distinguishing gliomas from inflammations was 1.21 with the AUC 0.78. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, PPV and NPV were 52.9%, 94.4%, 65.3%, 95.7% and 45.9%, respectively. ROC curve analysis showed that the optimal cut-off value of T/G ratio in distinguishing high-grade gliomas from low-grade gliomas was 1.06 with the AUC 0.78. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, PPV and NPV were 81.5%, 67.7%, 76.5%, 81.5% and 67.7%, respectively. ROC curve analysis showed that the optimal cut-off value of T/G ratio in distinguishing high-grade gliomas from low-grade gliomas and inflammations was 1.19 with the AUC 0.84. The sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, PPV and NPV were 70.4%, 85.1%, 78.5%, 79.2% and 78.1%, respectively.Conclusions: 13N-ammonia imaging is effective in distinguishing high-grade gliomas from low-grade gliomas and inflammations, but its role in the differential diagnosis of low-grade gliomas and brain inflammatory lesions is limited, and the accuracy needs to be improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Portal hypertensive gastropathy (PHG) is a common anomaly with potential for bleeding found in portal hypertension. Blood ammonia levels correlate well with liver disease severity and existence of portosystemic shunts. Increased ammonia results in vasodilation and hepatic stellate cell activation causing and exacerbating portal hypertension. Objective. To assess the relation of blood ammonia to the presence and severity of portal hypertensive gastropathy in cirrhosis. Methods. This cross-sectional study included 381 cirrhotics undergoing screening for esophageal varices (EV) divided into a portal hypertensive gastropathy group (203 patients with EV and PHG), esophageal varix group (41 patients with EV but no PHG), and control group (137 patients with no EV or PHG). A full clinical examination, routine laboratory tests, abdominal ultrasonography, child score calculation, and blood ammonia measurement were performed for all patients. Results. Blood ammonia, portal vein, splenic vein, and splenic longitudinal diameters were significantly higher and platelet counts lower in patients with EV and EV with PHG than controls. Patients having EV with PHG had significantly higher bilirubin and ammonia than those with EV but no PHG. Severe PHG was associated with significantly higher ammonia, EV grades, and superior location and a lower splenic longitudinal diameter than mild PHG. The PHG score showed a positive correlation with blood ammonia and a negative correlation with splenic longitudinal diameter. Conclusions. Blood ammonia levels correlate with the presence, severity, and score of portal hypertensive gastropathy in cirrhosis suggesting a causal relationship and encouraging trials of ammonia-lowering treatments for the management of severe PHG with a tendency to bleed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the role of betaine in the intestinal functions of high-salt stressed rats, 32 four-week-old male Sprague–Dawley rats weighing 128.0 (SD 5.06) g were randomly allotted to four groups. The control group was fed with standard chow diet (0.4% NaCl), while the treatment groups were fed a high-salt diet (4.0% NaCl) supplemented with betaine at 0.0%, 0.5%, and 1.0%, respectively. The experiment lasted 28 days. The results showed that rats in the high-salt stressed groups had a significant increase in both water intake and kidney index (p < 0.05). The level of cortisol (COR) was increased in the high-salt stressed rats (p < 0.05), and returned to normal levels with betaine supplementation (p < 0.05). Aldosterone (ALD) was decreased in all high-salt diet groups (p < 0.05). Betaine supplementation decreased antidiuretic hormone (ADH) levels significantly (p < 0.05). High salt stress decreased the activities of amylase, lipase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin in the small intestinal luminal contents (p < 0.05), however, these activities increased with betaine supplementation (p < 0.05). The gut villus height of small intestine was significantly decreased in the high-salt diet group (p < 0.05). However, they were higher in the betaine supplementation groups than in the control group (p < 0.05). A similar result was observed in the ratio of villus height to crypt depth (p < 0.05). Both alpha diversity indexes and beta diversity indexes showed that high salt stress decreased the diversity of intestinal microbiota, while supplementation with betaine counteracted the negative effect. In conclusion, the results indicate that betaine improves intestinal function by enhancing the digestive enzymes, ameliorating intestinal morphology, and enriching intestinal microbiota of high-salt stressed rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Invariant NKT (iNKT) cells are a distinct subset of T cells that exert Janus‐like functions in vivo by producing IFN‐γ and IL‐4. Sodium chloride modulates the functions of various immune cells, including conventional CD4+ T cells and macrophages. However, it is not known whether sodium chloride affects iNKT cell function, so we addressed this issue. Sodium chloride inhibited IFN‐γ, but not IL‐4, production by iNKT cells upon TCR or TCR‐independent (IL‐12 and IL‐18) stimulation in a dose‐dependent manner. Consistently, sodium chloride reduced the expression level of tbx21, but not gata‐3, in iNKT cells stimulated with TCR engagement or IL‐12 + IL‐18. Sodium chloride increased phosphorylated p38 expression in iNKT cells and inhibitors of p38, NFAT5, SGK1, and TCF‐1 restored IFN‐γ production by iNKT cells stimulated with sodium chloride and TCR engagement. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of iNKT cells pretreated with sodium chloride restored antibody‐induced joint inflammation to a lesser extent than for untreated iNKT cells in Jα18 knockout mice. These findings suggest that sodium chloride inhibits IFN‐γ production by iNKT cells in TCR‐dependent and TCR‐independent manners, which is dependent on p38, NFAT5, SGK1, and TCF‐1. These findings highlight the functional role of sodium chloride in iNKT cell‐mediated inflammatory diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cirrhosis leads to portal hypertension and vascular abnormalities in multiple vascular beds. There is intense vasoconstriction in the liver and the kidneys, but also vasodilation in the other vascular beds, including the periphery, lungs, brain, and mesentery. The derangement in each of these beds leads to specific clinical disease. The vasoconstrictive phenotype in the liver ultimately leads to clinical portal hypertension, and is caused by an imbalance of vasoconstrictive and vasorelaxing molecules, which will be the focus of this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Liver myofibroblasts (MFB) are crucial mediators of extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition in liver fibrosis. They arise mainly from hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) upon a process termed "activation." To a lesser extent, and depending on the cause of liver damage, portal fibroblasts, mesothelial cells, and fibrocytes may also contribute to the MFB population. Targeting MFB to reduce liver fibrosis is currently an area of intense research. Unfortunately, a clog in the wheel of antifibrotic therapies is the fact that although MFB are known to mediate scar formation, and participate in liver inflammatory response, many of their molecular portraits are currently unknown. In this review, we discuss recent understanding of MFB in health and diseases, focusing specifically on three evolving research fields: metabolism, autophagy, and epigenetics. We have emphasized on therapeutic prospects where applicable and mentioned techniques for use in MFB studies. Subsequently, we highlighted uncharted territories in MFB research to help direct future efforts aimed at bridging gaps in current knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The physiological roles of the betaine/GABA transporter (BGT1, slc6a12) are still being debated. BGT1 is a member of the solute carrier family 6 (the neurotransmitter, sodium symporter transporter family) and mediates cellular uptake of betaine and GABA in a sodium- and chloride-dependent process. Most of the studies of BGT1 concern its function and regulation in the kidney medulla where its role is best understood. The conditions here are hostile due to hyperosmolarity and significant concentrations of NH4Cl and urea. To withstand the hyperosmolarity, cells trigger osmotic adaptation, involving concentration of a transcriptional factor TonEBP/NFAT5 in the nucleus, and accumulate betaine and other osmolytes. Data from renal cells in culture, primarily MDCK, revealed that transcriptional regulation of BGT1 by TonEBP/NFAT5 is relatively slow. To allow more acute control of the abundance of BGT1 protein in the plasma membrane, there is also post-translation regulation of BGT1 protein trafficking which is dependent on intracellular calcium and ATP. Further, betaine may be important in liver metabolism as a methyl donor. In fact, in the mouse the liver is the organ with the highest content of BGT1. Hepatocytes express high levels of both BGT1 and the only enzyme that can metabolize betaine, namely betaine:homocysteine -S-methyltransferase (BHMT1). The BHMT1 enzyme removes a methyl group from betaine and transfers it to homocysteine, a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Finally, BGT1 has been proposed to play a role in controlling brain excitability and thereby represents a target for anticonvulsive drug development. The latter hypothesis is controversial due to very low expression levels of BGT1 relative to other GABA transporters in brain, and also the primary location of BGT1 at the surface of the brain in the leptomeninges. These issues are discussed in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betaine, also known as trimethylglycine, is an important human nutrient obtained from a variety of foods and also can be synthesized from choline. Betaine is much more abundant in kidney and liver compared to other mammalian organs. The principal role of betaine in the kidney is osmoprotection in cells of the medulla and it enters these cells via the betaine/γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter protein (BGT1), which is upregulated by hyperosmotic stress. This process has been studied in great detail. In liver, the main role of betaine is a methyl donor in the methionine cycle. However, recent studies showed that BGT1 is much more abundant in liver compared to kidney medulla. Despite this, the role of BGT1 in liver has received little attention. Entry of betaine into liver cells is a necessary first step for its action at the cellular level. Increased interest in betaine has developed because of a number of therapeutic uses. These include treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver and hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for atherosclerotic disease. Several important questions need to be addressed to better understand the potential of betaine as a therapeutic agent for other liver diseases, such as alcohol-induced injury. Heavy alcohol consumption is the most common cause for liver-related deaths and altered liver metabolism may contribute to hepatic, vascular, coronary, and cerebral diseases. © 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betaine, also known as trimethylglycine, is an important human nutrient obtained from a variety of foods and also can be synthesized from choline. Betaine is much more abundant in kidney and liver compared to other mammalian organs. The principal role of betaine in the kidney is osmoprotection in cells of the medulla and it enters these cells via the betaine/γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter protein (BGT1), which is upregulated by hyperosmotic stress. This process has been studied in great detail. In liver, the main role of betaine is a methyl donor in the methionine cycle. However, recent studies showed that BGT1 is much more abundant in liver compared to kidney medulla. Despite this, the role of BGT1 in liver has received little attention. Entry of betaine into liver cells is a necessary first step for its action at the cellular level. Increased interest in betaine has developed because of a number of therapeutic uses. These include treatment of nonalcoholic fatty liver and hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for atherosclerotic disease. Several important questions need to be addressed to better understand the potential of betaine as a therapeutic agent for other liver diseases, such as alcohol-induced injury. Heavy alcohol consumption is the most common cause for liver-related deaths and altered liver metabolism may contribute to hepatic, vascular, coronary, and cerebral diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Aims: The serine/threonine kinase Tau-tubulin-kinase 2 (TTBK2) is expressed in various tissues including kidney, liver and brain. Loss of function mutations of TTBK2 lead to autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxia type 11 (SCA11). Cell survival is fostered by cellular accumulation of organic osmolytes. Carriers accomplishing cellular accumulation of organic osmolytes include the Na+, Cl--coupled betaine/γ-amino-butyric acid transporter BGT1. The present study explored whether TTBK2 participates in the regulation of BGT1 activity. Methods: Electrogenic transport of GABA was determined in Xenopus oocytes expressing BGT1 with or without wild-type TTBK2, truncated TTBK2[1-450] or kinase inactive mutants TTBK2- KD and TTBK2[1-450]-KD. Results: Coexpression of wild-type TTBK2, but not of TTBK2[1-450], TTBK2-KD or TTBK2[1-450]-KD, increased electrogenic GABA transport. Wildtype TTBK2 increased the maximal transport rate without significantly modifying affinity of the carrier. Coexpression of wild-type TTBK2 significantly delayed the decline of transport following inhibition of carrier insertion with brefeldin A, indicating that wild-type TTBK2 increased carrier stability in the cell membrane. Conclusion: Tau-tubulin-kinase 2 TTBK2 is a powerful stimulator of the osmolyte and GABA transporter BGT1. Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Na+- and Cl+-dependent GABA-betaine transporter (BGT1) has received attention mostly as a protector against osmolarity changes in the kidney and as a potential controller of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain. Nevertheless, the cellular distribution of BGT1, and its physiological importance, is not fully understood. Here we have quantified mRNA levels using TaqMan real-time PCR, produced a number of BGT1 antibodies, and used these to study BGT1 distribution in mice. BGT1 (protein and mRNA) is predominantly expressed in the liver (sinusoidal hepatocyte plasma membranes) and not in the endothelium. BGT1 is also present in the renal medulla, where it localizes to the basolateral membranes of collecting ducts (particularly at the papilla tip) and the thick ascending limbs of Henle. There is some BGT1 in the leptomeninges, but brain parenchyma, brain blood vessels, ependymal cells, the renal cortex, and the intestine are virtually BGT1 deficient in 1- to 3-mo-old mice. Labeling specificity was assured by processing tissue from BGT1-deficient littermates in parallel as negative controls. Addition of 2.5% sodium chloride to the drinking water for 48 h induced a two- to threefold upregulation of BGT1, tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein, and sodiummyo- inositol cotransporter 1 (slc5a3) in the renal medulla, but not in the brain and barely in the liver. BGT1-deficient and wild-type mice appeared to tolerate the salt treatment equally well, possibly because betaine is one of several osmolytes. In conclusion, this study suggests that BGT1 plays its main role in the liver, thereby complementing other betaine-transporting carrier proteins (e.g., slc6a20) that are predominantly expressed in the small intestine or kidney rather than the liver. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the study of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic gene expression patterns under HCV- genotype-4 replication. It states that viral replication was estimated by quantitative Real-Time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and gene expression was identified by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR. Finding suggested that consistent increase in apoptotic activity which states that HCV infection induced virus apoptosis before the course of infection.

In inner organs, glutamine contributes to proliferation, detoxification and establishment of a mechanical barrier, i.e., functions essential for skin, as well. However, the age-dependent and regional peculiarities of distribution of glutamine synthetase (GS), an enzyme responsible for generation of glutamine, and factors regulating its enzymatic activity in mammalian skin remain undisclosed. To explore this, GS localization was investigated using immunohistochemistry and double-labeling of young and adult human and rat skin sections as well as skin cells in culture. In human and rat skin GS was almost completely co-localized with astrocyte-specific proteins (e.g. GFAP). While GS staining was pronounced in all layers of the epidermis of young human skin, staining was reduced and more differentiated among different layers with age. In stratum basale and in stratum spinosum GS was co-localized with the adherens junction component β-catenin. Inhibition of, glycogen synthase kinase 3b in cultured keratinocytes and HaCaT cells, however, did not support a direct role of β-catenin in regulation of GS. Enzymatic and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction studies revealed an unusual mode of regulation of this enzyme in keratinocytes, i.e., GS activity, but not expression, was enhanced about 8-10 fold when the cells were exposed to ammonium ions. Prominent posttranscriptional up-regulation of GS activity in keratinocytes by ammonium ions in conjunction with widespread distribution of GS immunoreactivity throughout the epidermis allows considering the skin as a large reservoir of latent GS. Such a depository of glutamine-generating enzyme seems essential for continuous renewal of epidermal permeability barrier and during pathological processes accompanied by hyperammonemia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been proposed that key enzymes of ureagenesis and the alanine aminotransferase activity predominate in periportal hepatocytes. However, ureagenesis from alanine, when measured in the perfused liver, did not show periportal predominance and even the release of the direct products of alanine transformation, lactate and pyruvate, was higher in perivenous cells. An alternative way of analyzing the functional distributions of alanine aminotransferase and the urea cycle along the hepatic acini would be to measure alanine and urea production from precursors such as lactate or pyruvate plus ammonia. In the present work these aspects were investigated in the bivascularly perfused rat liver. The results of the present study confirm that gluconeogenesis and the associated oxygen uptake tend to predominate in the periportal region. Alanine synthesis from lactate and pyruvate plus ammonia, however, predominated in the perivenous region. Furthermore, no predominance of ureagenesis in the periportal region was found, except for conditions of high ammonia concentrations plus oxidizing conditions induced by pyruvate. These observations corroborate the view that data on enzyme activity or expression alone cannot be extrapolated unconditionally to the living cell. The current view of the hepatic ammonia-detoxifying system proposes that the small perivenous fraction of glutamine synthesizing perivenous cells removes a minor fraction of ammonia that escapes from ureagenesis in periportal cells. However, since urea synthesis occurs at high rates in all hepatocytes with the possible exclusion of those cells not possessing carbamoyl-phosphate synthase, it is probable that ureagenesis is equally important as an ammonia-detoxifying mechanism in the perivenous region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary.  Using microdialysis, we have monitored extracellular levels of amino acids and related amines in the human liver at three stages of the transplantation procedure: donor retrieval, back table preparation and during 48 h post-implantation. By comparing the ratio of mean levels at the donor and back table stages, with the ratio between early (2–6 h) and late (43–48 h) post-reperfusion, these amines were classified into one of three groups. In one group, back table levels were markedly higher than during the donor stage, with levels declining over time post-reperfusion. A second group had much lower levels in the back table than during the donor phase, and post-reperfusion levels were either stable or increased over time. Concentrations of amino acids in the final group remained relatively constant at all stages. This study illustrates the value of microdialysis in providing organ-specific metabolic data that may indicate specific mechanisms of poor graft function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cell hydration changes critically affect liver metabolism and gene expression. In the course of gene expression studies using nylon cDNA-arrays we found that hyperosmolarity (405 mosmol/l) suppressed the betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase (Bhmt) mRNA expression in H4IIE rat hepatoma cells. This was confirmed by Northern blot and real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis, which in addition unraveled a pronounced induction of Bhmt mRNA expression by hypoosmotic (205 mosmol/l) swelling. Osmotic regulation of Bhmt mRNA expression was largely paralleled at the levels of Bhmt protein and enzymatic activity. Like hyperosmotic NaCl, hyperosmotic raffinose but not hyperosmotic urea suppressed Bhmt mRNA expression, suggesting that cell shrinkage rather than increased ionic strength or hyperosmolarity per se is the trigger. Hypoosmolarity increased the expression of a reporter gene driven by the entire human BHMT promoter, whereas destabilization of BHMT mRNA was observed under hyperosmotic conditions. Osmosensitivity of Bhmt mRNA expression was impaired by inhibitors of tyrosine kinases and cyclic nucleotide-dependent kinases. The osmotic regulation of BHMT may be part of a cell volume-regulatory response and additionally lead to metabolic alterations that depend on the availability of betaine-derived methyl groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progressive liver fibrosis (with the resultant cirrhosis) is the primary cause of chronic liver failure. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are critically important mediators of liver fibrosis. In the healthy liver, HSCs are quiescent lipid-storing cells limited to the perisinusoidal endothelium. However, in the injured liver, HSCs undergo myofibroblastic transdifferentiation (activation), which is a critical step in the development of organ fibrosis. HSCs express P2Y receptors linking extracellular ATP to inositol (1,4,5)- trisphosphate-mediated cytosolic Ca2+ signals. Here, we report that HSCs express only the type I inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate receptor and that the receptor shifts into the nucleus and cell extensions upon activation. These cell extensions, furthermore, express sufficient machinery to enable local application of ATP to evoke highly localized Ca2+ signals that induce localized contractions. These autonomous units of subcellular signaling and response reveal a new level of subcellular organization, which, in turn, establishes a novel paradigm for the local control of fibrogenesis in the liver. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contractile force generated by hepatic stellate cells in response to endothelin-1 contributes to sinusoidal blood flow regulation and hepatic fibrosis. This study's aim was to directly test the widely held view that changes in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) mediate stellate cell force generation. Contractile force generation by primary cultures of rat hepatic stellate cells grown in three-dimensional collagen gels was directly and quantitatively measured using a force transducer. Stellate cell [Ca2+]i, myosin activation, and migration were quantified using standard techniques. [Ca2+]i was modulated using ionomycin, BAPTA, KCl, and removal of extracellular Ca2+ Removal of extracellular Ca2+ did not alter endothelin-1-stimulated force development or [Ca2+]i. lonomycin, a Ca2+ ionophore, triggered an increase in [Ca2+]i that was three times greater than that stimulated by endothelin-1, but only induced 16% of the force and 38% of the myosin regulatory light chain (MLC) phosphorylation induced by endothelin-1. Physiological increases in [Ca2+]i induced by hyperkalemia had no effect on contractile force. Loading BAPTA, a Ca2+ chelator, in stellate cells completely blocked endothelin-1-induced increases in [Ca2+]i but had no effect on endothelin-1-stimulated force generation or MLC phosphorylation. In contrast, Y-27632, a selective rho-associated kinase inhibitor, inhibited endothelin-1-stimulated force generation by at least 70% and MLC phosphorylation by at least 80%. Taken together, these observations indicate that changes in [Ca2+]i are neither necessary nor sufficient for contractile force generation by rat stellate cells. Our results challenge the current model of contractile regulation in hepatic stellate cells and have important implications for our understanding of hepatic pathophysiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In liver injury, the pool of hepatic stellate cell (HSC) increases and produces extracellular matrix proteins, decreasing during the resolution of fibrosis. The profibrogenic role of endothelin-1 (ET-1) in liver fibrosis remains disputed. We therefore studied the effect of ET-1 on proliferation, apoptosis and profibrogenic gene expression of HSCs. Results: First passage HSC predominantly expressed endothelin A receptor (ETAR) mRNA and 4th passage HSC predominantly expressed the endothelin B receptor (ETBR) mRNA. ET-1 had no effect on DNA synthesis in 1st passage HSC, but reduced DNA synthesis in 4th passage HSC by more than 50%. Inhibition of proliferation by endothelin-1 was abrogated by ETBR specific antagonist BQ788, indicating a prominent role of ETBR in growth inhibition. ET-1 did not prevent apoptosis induced by serum deprivation or Fas ligand in 1st or 4th passage HSC. However, ET-1 increased procollagen á1(I), transforming growth factor ®-1 and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)- 2 mRNA transcripts in a concentration-dependent manner in 1st, but not in 4th passage HSC. Profibrogenic gene expression was abrogated by ETAR antagonist BQ123. Both BQ123 and BQ788 attenuated the increase of MMP-2 expression by ET-1. Conclusion: We show that ET-1 stimulates fibrogenic gene expression for 1st passage HSC and it inhibits HSC proliferation for 4th passage HSC. These data indicate the profibrogenic and antifibrogenic action of ET-1 for HSC are involved in the process of liver fibrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mild hyperhomocysteinemia is a risk factor for many diseases, including cardiovascular disease. We determined the effects of insulin resistance and of type 2 diabetes on homocysteine (Hcy) metabolism using Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF/Gmi fa/fa and ZDF/Gmi fa/?). Plasma total Hcy was reduced in ZDF fa/fa rats by 24% in the pre-diabetic insulin-resistant stage, while in the frank diabetic stage there was a 59% reduction. Hepatic activities of several enzymes that play a role in the removal of Hcy:cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), cystathionine gamma-lyase, and betaine:Hcy methyltransferase (BHMT) were increased as was methionine adenosyltransferase. CBS and BHMT mRNA levels and the hepatic level of S-adenosylmethionine were also increased in the ZDF fa/fa rats. Studies with primary hepatocytes showed that Hcy export and the transsulfuration flux in cells from ZDF fa/fa rats were particularly sensitive to betaine. Interestingly, liver betaine concentration was found to be significantly lower in the ZDf fa/fa rats at both 5 and 11 weeks. These results emphasize the importance of betaine metabolism in determining plasma Hcy levels in type 2 diabetes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present review summarises the potential nutritional and physiological functions of betaine as a feed additive in relation to performance criteria in livestock production. Betaine, the trimethyl derivative of the amino acid glycine, is a metabolite of plant and animal tissues. In plants, betaine is particularly synthesised and accumulated as an osmoprotectant against salt and temperature stress. In animals, betaine is the product of choline oxidation or it originates from nutritional sources. Over the past decades, numerous studies have been carried out to investigate the potential effects of betaine supplementation on animal performance. Due to its chemical structure, betaine shows the characteristics of a dipolar zwitterion resulting in osmoprotective properties. Promoting effects on the intestinal tract against osmotic stress occurring during diarrhoea or coccidiosis have been reported following betaine supplementation in pigs and poultry. There is also some evidence that dietary betaine may improve the digestibility of specific nutrients. As a product of choline oxidation, betaine is involved in transmethylation reactions of the organism. Betaine as a methyl donor provides its labile methyl groups for the synthesis of several metabolically active substances such as creatine and carnitine. Supplementation with betaine may decrease the requirement for other methyl donors such as methionine and choline. There is also some evidence for enhanced methionine availability after dietary supplementation of betaine resulting in improved animal performance. Alterations in the distribution pattern of protein and fat in the body have been reported following betaine supplementation. A more efficient use of dietary protein may result from a methionine-sparing effect of betaine, but also direct interactions of betaine with metabolism-regulating factors have to be considered. Though the mode of action of betaine as a carcass modifier remains open, there is, however, growing evidence that betaine could have a positive impact both on animal performance and carcass quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bestrophins are a newly identified family of Cl− channels. Mutations in the founding member of the family, human bestrophin-1 (hBest1), are responsible for a form of early onset macular degeneration called Best vitelliform macular dystrophy. The link between dysfunction of hBest1 and macular degeneration remains unknown. Because retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) cells may be subjected to varying osmotic pressure due to light-dependent changes in the ionic composition of the subretinal space and because RPE cells may undergo large volume changes during phagocytosis of shed photoreceptor discs, we investigated whether bestrophin currents were affected by cell volume. When hBest1 and mBest2 were overexpressed in HEK 293, HeLa, and ARPE-19 cells, a new Ca2+-activated Cl− current appeared. This current was very sensitive to cell volume. A 20% increase in extracellular osmolarity caused cell shrinkage and a∼70–80% reduction in bestrophin current. Decreases in extracellular osmolarity increased the bestrophin currents slightly, but this was difficult to quantify due to simultaneous activation of endogenous volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC) current. To determine whether a similar current was present in mouse RPE cells, the effect of hyperosmotic solutions on isolated mouse RPE cells was examined. Mouse RPE cells exhibited an endogenous Cl− current that resembled the expressed hBest1 in that it was decreased by hypertonic solution. We conclude that bestrophins are volume sensitive and that they could play a novel role in cell volume regulation of RPE cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT) is the only enzyme known to catabolize betaine. In addition to being a substrate for BHMT, betaine also functions as an osmoprotectant that accumulates in the kidney medulla under conditions of high extracellular osmolarity. The mechanisms that regulate the partitioning of betaine between its use as a methyl donor and its accumulation as an osmoprotectant are not completely understood. The aim of this study was to determine whether BHMT expression is regulated by salt intake. This report shows that guinea pigs express BHMT in the liver, kidney, and pancreas and that the steady-state levels of BHMT mRNA in kidney and liver decrease 68% and 93% in guinea pigs consuming tap water containing high levels of salt compared with animals provided untreated tap water. The animals consuming the salt water also had ∼50% less BHMT activity in the liver and kidney, and steady-state protein levels decreased ∼30% in both organs. Pancreatic BHMT activity and protein levels were unaffected by the high salt treatment. The complex mechanisms involved in the downregulation of hepatic and renal BHMT expression in guinea pigs drinking salt water remain to be clarified, but the physiological significance of this downregulation may be to expedite the transport and accumulation of betaine into the kidney medulla under conditions of high extracellular osmolarity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fas-Fas ligand (FasL)-dependent pathways exert a suppressive effect on inflammatory responses in immune-privileged organs. FasL expression in hepatic Kupffer cells (KC) has been implicated in hepatic immunoregulation. In this study, modulation of FasL expression of KC by endogenous gut-derived bacterial LPS and the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as potential mediators of FasL expression in KC were investigated. LPS stimulation of KC resulted in upstream ROS generation and, subsequently, increased FasL expression and consequent Jurkat cell (Fas-positive) apoptosis. The NADPH oxidase and xanthine oxidase enzymatic pathways appear to be major sources of this upstream ROS generation. Increased FasL expression was blocked by antioxidants and by enzymatic blocking of ROS generation. Exogenous administration of H2O2 stimulated KC FasL expression and subsequent Jurkat cell apoptosis. Intracellular endogenous ROS generation may therefore represent an important signal transduction pathway for FasL expression in KC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To further explore that hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation results in physiological protection against environmental insult, the profile of differentiation of HSC has been examined upon treatment with ellagic acid (EA), a plant-derived antioxidant that shows multiple protective effects during liver disease. Sparse rat liver cell cultures were grown in media containing EA (3, 6, 30 and 100 µg/ml) and, as controls, without EA, and inspected until day 7 in culture. The cells were double-labelled with antibodies against glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and smooth muscle alpha-actin (SMAA), marker proteins of quiescent and activated HSC, respectively. In EA-free culture conditions, the quiescent (SMAA−/GFAP+) HSC transiently acquired a semi-activated (SMAA+/GFAP+), phenotype and were further transformed into activated (SMAA+/GFAP−), pleomorphic HSC. Up to a concentration of 30 µg/ml, EA induced an early synthesis of SMAA in all HSC and inhibited their morphologic differentiation and individual growth throughout the culture period. At a concentration of 6 µg/ml, EA supported the semi-activated (SMAA+/GFAP+) phenotype of HSC throughout the culture period, whereas treatment with high EA concentrations (30 µg/ml) resulted in an early loss of GFAP expression. In conclusion: (i) the uniform response of HSC to EA by mild activation adds functional significance to cellular features preceding the transformation of HSC to myofibroblasts; (ii) the high sensitivity of HSC to EA treatment suggests their involvement in any mechanisms of protection by this antioxidant; (iii) the maintenance of HSC morphology might be one of the factors playing a role in the prevention or slowing down of liver fibrosis; (iv) because the effects of EA are concentration- and time-dependent, an arbitrary usage of this antioxidant is a matter of potential concern; (v) the various patterns of HSC activation observed might correspond to distinct activities of these cells, which, in turn, might lead to different outcomes of liver fibrosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

TonEBP is a transcription factor that, when activated by hypertonicity, increases transcription of genes, including those involved m organic osmolyte accumulation. Surprisingly, it is expressed in virtually all tissues, including many never normally exposed to hypertonicity. We measured TonEBP mRNA (real-time PCR) and protein (Western blot analysis) in tissues of control plasma osmolality 294 ± 1 mosmol/kgH[sub 2]O) and hyposmotic (dDAVP infusion plus water loading for 3 days, 241 ± 2 mosmol/kgH[sub 2]O) rats to test whether the ubiquitous expression of TonEBP mRNA is osmotically regulated around the normal plasma osmolality. TonEBP protein is reduced by hyposmolality in thymus and liver, but not in brain and is not detected in heart and skeletal muscle. TonEBP mRNA decreases in brain and liver but is unchanged in other tissues. There are no general changes in mRNA of TonEBP-mediated genes: aldose reductase (AR) does not change in any tissue, betaine transporter (BGT1) decreases only in liver, taurine transporter (TauT) only in brain and thymus, and inositol transporter (SMIT) only in skeletal muscle and liver. Heat shock protein (Hsp)70-1 and Hsp70-2 mRNA increase greatly in most tissues, which cannot be attributed to decreased TonEBP activity. The conclusions are ss follows: 1) TonEBP protein or mRNA expression is reduced by hyposmolality in thymus, liver, and brain. 2) TonEBP protein and mRNA expression are differentially regulated in some tissues. 3) Although AR, SMIT, BGT1, and TauT are regulated by TonEBP in renal medullary cells, other sources of regulation may predominate in other tissues. 4) TonEBP abundance and activity are regulated by factors other than tonicity in some tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planktonic organisms exhibit diverse morphological, behavioural and life-history responses to the chemical presence of potential predators. Prey organisms have been found to sense such predators via predator-derived kairomones. The induced reactions are assumed to reduce predation risk and thus to be adaptive. Numerous studies have investigated various aspects of inducible defences in different crustaceans, in rotifers, planktonic ciliates and algae. As a first step, we summarise recent work on chemically induced anti-predator defences in morphology, life history and behaviour. Morphological defences have been found in a wide range of different plankton organisms and recent studies on predator-induced morphologies mainly addressed the question of costs for these changes. Life-history responses were mainly studied in cladocerans and several studies have recently addressed some novel topics, such as diapause induction and the influence of predator kairomones on hatching of resting stages. Behavioural anti-predator defences also have been found for several plankton species and are characterised by relatively fast induction times. We further identified four research directions in which substantial progress has been made recently: (I) The effects of simultaneous exposure to infochemicals from different predators and the consequences of a complex chemical environment. Some environmental contaminants, such as synthetic chemicals or heavy metals, have been found to potentially disturb natural chemical communication in aquatic predator-prey systems. (II) The influence of genetic variation on the reaction to infochemicals and its implications. Clonal differences have not only been found for the presence or absence of a certain trait but also with respect to the type of response. (III) The degree to which different types of responses to a specific kairomone are coupled. Recent studies underline the uncoupling of different anti-predator responses of which some have been considered to be coupled. (IV) Studies on the chemical properties and on the metabolic origin of predator kairomones. Substantial progress has been made recently, especially with respect to the identification of predator kairomones that are important for planktonic ciliates. The identification and isolation of kairomones are an important step towards studies addressing the consequences of predator-induced defences on the level of populations, communities and ecosystems. So far most studies have considered effects and consequences on the level of individual prey organisms and studies taking the consequences at higher ecological levels into account are rare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Semiochemicals play an important role in interactions between living organisms in aquatic environments. Although the presence of chemical cues is confirmed in more and more systems, the chemical structures remain predominantly elusive. To create more accurate prey–predator interaction models and to advance the research on chemical communication, it is essential to identify these compounds. A literature overview of cues involving Daphnia (either as producer or receiver) is given and the progress towards their isolation and structure elucidation is described. Most of the research so far has concentrated on the elucidation of kairomones produced by predators of Daphnia (especially Chaoborus and several species of fish). Although some progress has been made, these cues have not been isolated and identified yet. Additionally new results on the isolation and identification of the kairomone responsible for the colony formation in Scenedesmus using differential diagnosis and bioassay-directed fractionation of Daphnia exudates are presented. The importance of suitable and well performing bioassays herein cannot be underestimated. Some preliminary results with solid-phase extraction with C18 proved to be reproducible for extracting the active compound from Daphnia water, although it was not possible to get the biological activity into a single fraction. The cue was not extractable with an anion exchanger (SAX). Subjecting the extract to HPLC led to one active fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the mechanisms regulating amino acid and glucose transporters in vascular endothelial cells. Mechanisms controlling membrane transport activity and expression in vascular smooth muscle cells; Comparison between amino acid and glucose transport systems in terms of specificity, ionic dependence and kinetic properties.

Summary The Fas/Fas ligand (FasL) system plays important roles in the immune system, including host immunoregulation and cytotoxicity. In this study, we investigated the involvement of Fas–FasL interactions in spontaneous acceptance of hepatic allografts in murine orthotopic liver transplantation. Liver transplantation between the C57BL/6 (B6, H-2b ) donor and the MRL/Mp (MRL, H-2k ) recipient was performed in various combinations of donor and recipient mice with wild type (+/+), Fas-mutant (lpr ) or FasL-mutant (gld ) genotypes. The prolongation and spontaneous acceptance of the fully allogeneic grafts in recipients was not observed in either MRL-lpr recipients with B6+/+ livers or MRL+/+ recipients with B6-gld livers. Moreover, the serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and the degree of cell infiltration into hepatic allografts on day 7 after transplantation were inversely correlated with the recipient survival time (in days). The donor-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activities of the graft-infiltrating cells (GICs) from MRL-gld recipients with B6+/+ livers were much lower than those from MRL+/+ or -lpr recipients on days 5 and 10 after transplantation. However, the CTL activities of the GICs from MRL+/+ and -gld recipients predominately disappeared by day 15 after transplantation. Furthermore, the anti-donor CTL activities induced in MRL+/+ recipients were ascribed to CD8+ cells, and were not mediated by Fas–FasL interactions. These results strongly suggest that the Fas/FasL system plays a critical role for recipient immunoregulation, enabling recipients in accepting hepatic allografts by deletion of the donor-specific T cells, but not for CTL/target cell interaction in MRL+/+ recipients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study which investigated whether hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation alters the vascular responsiveness of the portohepatic circulation to endothelins. Materials and methods; Results; Discussion.

Focuses on a study which discussed the responses to hypertonicity of cultured endothelial cells from swine pulmonary arteries. Materials and methods; Effects of hypertonicity on cell protein synthesis, growth, and survival; Cell volume, cation and ninhydrin-positive substances content; Induction of transport activities.

The CD95 (Apo-1/Fas) receptor-ligand system is one of the key regulators of apoptosis and is particularly important for the maintenance of lymphocyte homeostasis. There is now broad evidence that susceptibility of tumor cells towards CD95-mediated apoptosis is largely reduced. In the human, germline and somatic mutations of the CD95 gene are associated with a high risk of both lymphoid and solid tumors. Based on these observations a new concept defining CD95 as a tumor suppressor gene is discussed. In addition to CD95, its natural ligand (CD95L) is also implicated in malignant progression. Compared to their nonmalignant counterparts, malignant cells frequently exhibit aberrant de novo expression of CD95L and are able to induce CD95L-mediated apoptosis in bystander cells. The role for neoplastic CD95L expression in local tissue destruction, invasion, and metastatic spread has been established for many tumor types. CD95L expression by malignant cells may counteract the host's antitumor immunity and favors immune escape of the tumor. On this basis, the significance of loss of CD95 and gain of CD95L expression for tumor progression is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deals with a study which examined the abundance and nuclear distribution of tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein (TonEBP). Materials and methods; Stimulation of TonEBP; Effect of cellular accumulation of betaine and inositol on TonBEP.

Summary Interaction of CD95 (Apo‐1/Fas) and its ligand (CD95L) plays an important role in the regulation of the immune response, since CD95+ lymphocytes may be killed after engagement of the CD95 receptor. Studying the CD95/CD95L system in 40 cases of breast cancer, the malignant cells expressed CD95L, but lost CD95 expression, when compared with non‐malignant mammary tissue. Jurkat T cells incubated on breast cancer sections underwent CD95L‐specific apoptosis. The rate of apoptosis correlated with the CD95L mRNA levels of the tissue samples. In four breast cancer cell lines, CD95L expression was increased by interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ), which resulted in higher levels of CD95L‐specific apoptosis in co‐cultured Jurkat T cells. Since IFN‐γ is mainly secreted by activated T cells, up‐regulation of CD95L in breast cancer cells in response to IFN‐γ may thus counterselect activated tumour‐infiltrating T cells and favour the immune escape of breast cancer. As demonstrated by inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases, CD95L expressed on breast cancer cells can also be shed from the cell membrane into the culture supernatant. Supernatants derived from cultured breast cancer cells induced apoptosis in Jurkat T cells via CD95L. In breast cancer patients, depletion of CD4+ and CD8+ peripheral blood lymphocytes was significantly correlated with CD95L expression in the tumours. This might be suggestive for a relationship between CD95L expression by breast cancer and systemic immunosuppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is characterized by inflammatory liver damage and a long viral persistence associated with an increased risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma. Both in liver damage and in oncogenesis a disturbance of apoptosis has been implicated, although the underlying mechanisms in these apparently opposite processes are incompletely understood. HCV-triggered liver injury is mediated mainly by host immune mechanisms and eventually by direct cytopathic effects of HCV. Recent data shows that caspase activation, either triggered by death ligands, other cytokines, granzyme B or HCV proteins, is considerably upregulated in HCV-infected liver. Interestingly, caspase activation appears to correlate closely with the inflammatory response. Data about the role of single HCV proteins, either in cultured cells or transgenic animals models, however, are contradictory, as both pro- and anti-apoptotic effects have been observed. Nevertheless, apoptosis induction upon HCV infection may critically contribute to liver damage, while inhibition of apoptosis may result in HCV persistence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]