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This paper gives a brief overview of the field methods used to study the distribution of seabirds at sea in the German parts of the North and Baltic Seas. It demonstrates how the data were analysed, how seabird concentrations may be delineated, and how suggestions for protected areas were derived from the data. Seabird distribution was studied by transect counts from ships and aircraft. Species distribution maps produced from these data are based on densities. The distribution of widely dispersed species, e.g., lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) and northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), were analysed using grid maps. For species occurring in concentrations, a spatial interpolation procedure using ordinary kriging was adopted. Examples of distributions and maps are given for long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis; Baltic Sea), common eider (Somateria mollissima; Baltic Sea) and red-throated and black-throated divers (Gavia stellata and G. arctica; North Sea). For all specially important species (i.e., species listed in Annex I of the EU Birds Directive that should be the subject of special conservation measures, e.g., red-throated diver and sandwich tern Sterna paradisaea), concentration areas were identified and subsequently combined so that a set of potential areas for conservation could be determined. From this map, potential Special Protection Areas (SPAs) were established. Finally, this paper briefly discusses field methods and methods of analysis and gives further recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of isolated mountain forests in Central Asian drylands has been the subject of a number of recent studies. The present paper examines islands of birch and willow forest in the Mongolian Govi Altay Mountains. Using vegetation surveys, dendrochronological studies and charcoal findings, it is attempted to assess the present-day ecological state of the vegetation as well as the environmental history and ecological trends. One of the three forests studied seems to be expanding rapidly due to declining levels of utilization under climatically favourable conditions. The other forests however, situated about 350 km to the south-east of the former, are threatened by consistently high levels of anthropogenic pressure. Based on ecological evidence, the forest islands’ role as witnesses of a once coherent forest belt that may have been retreating since the mid-Holocene is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 20th century, the global climate has warmed about 0.6 K. High-mountain areas as well as areas of high latitudes are experiencing even greater increases in temperature especially in the last half century. With changing climatic conditions, the determinants of global, and in particular, altitudinal distribution of plants and plant communities are likely to change and a subsequent reaction of climate sensitive species and ecosystems is expected. The following paper focuses on observed climate-induced changes in the two uppermost altitudinal vegetational ecotones at the treeline and the upper limit of plant life at the alpine-nival transition zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on comprehensive evaluations and analyses of existing literature and data sources, a review of geographical and ecological aspects of the upper timberline in the Himalayan mountain system is presented. Upper timberline elevations increase along two gradients: a NW-SE gradient corresponds to higher temperature sums at same elevations along the mountain arc. However, mean temperatures of the warmest month are higher at timberlines in the NW, which develop at lower elevations than expected since extreme winter cold, later snow melt, and shorter growing seasons overcompensate the advantage of higher summer temperatures. A second gradient is developed in peripheral-central direction from the Himalayan south slope to the Great Himalayan range and the Tibetan highlands. Increasing timberline elevations along this gradient are related to the combined effects of continentality and mass-elevation, both leading to higher temperature sums. Juniperus tibetica stands in S-Central Tibet even reach 4600–4800 m, the most elevated timberline in the northern hemisphere. Potentially natural timberline elevations are higher at south-facing slopes compared to north-facing slopes. The difference in altitudinal position is up to several hundred meters. The pronounced effects of exposure to solar radiation result in a much higher utilization pressure at sunny slopes, in particular with regard to pastoral use. South-facing slopes have since long been subjected to massive human impacts throughout the mountain arc so that natural conditions are hard to reconstruct. The depression of upper timberline may amount to more than 500 m, largely depending on the local/ regional utilization potential of alpine pasture areas. With regard to physiognomy, high coniferous forests give way to medium-sized broadleaved tree stands and finally to a krummholz belt. This is the dominant timberline pattern on shady slopes, whereas remnant open coniferous forest stands on sunny slopes dissolve into isolated patches or single crippled trees higher up. Along the NW-SE gradient, north-facing slopes show a floristic change from deciduous Betula- to evergreen Rhododendron-dominated upper timberlines, which must be attributed to decreasing winter cold and strongly increasing humidity levels. Juniperus spp. are the principal timberline tree species on south-facing slopes throughout the mountain system. Relationships of Himalayan timberlines to other ecological conditions and processes such as carbon balance, freezing and frost drought, soil temperatures, wind, snow cover, soils, regeneration, etc., are still largely unexplored. The state of the art is summarized in this paper. More systematic, interdisciplinary timberline research in the Himalaya is strongly needed to better understand how complex ecological and socio-economic processes are expressed in present spatial and physiognomic timberline structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All species have limits to their distribution and individuals that demarcate margins demonstrate an end-point in adaptation to a changing environment. Limits to plant survival arise either from a failure to grow or from an inability to reproduce. Consequently, matching climatic data with geographical distribution has to consider the biological causes for the failure of plants to survive outside any given area. Physical factors, such as thermal time (day-degrees) and growing season length, differentiate between the broadly recognised vegetation zones of High, Low, and Subarctic. However, within these zones the limitations to plant distribution are less readily related to climatic factors. In peripheral areas, relating physical climatic factors to species occurrence requires a knowledge of the many interactions between physiology and genetics of populations as they approach their territorial margins. Examination of the extent of variation found in plants growing in cold habitats reveals large differences both between and within populations and at different seasons in metabolic rates, temperature responsiveness and metabolic efficiency. The High Arctic represents a peripheral zone where conditions are prone to large fluctuations. Consequently, plant distribution will be affected by aspects of the environment that are not permanent, but which occur irregularly with varying frequency and intensity. This paper considers the physiological and genetic properties of polar plant populations that may facilitate persistence in uncertain and heterogeneous adverse environments. Particular attention is given to those species that appear to have maintained a presence at high latitudes since pre-Pleistocene times and have therefore survived many past environmental fluctuations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As awareness of deep-sea corals increases, global efforts to conserve them are increasing as well. Oceana, a non-governmental conservation organization that merged with the American Oceans Campaign in 2002, is focusing significant attention and resources on the conservation of deep-sea coral communities in United States’ waters. Oceana is carrying out a number of activities as part of its deep-sea coral campaign. These include: • Working to pass legislation that would ban the use of particularly destructive bottom trawls in all U.S. waters in collaboration with the Marine Conservation Biology Institute;• Working to pass legislation that would specifically protect known deep-sea coral and sponge areas and establish a process for future protections;• Working to protect deep-sea coral and sponge habitats in the U.S. through the regional fishery management councils;• Developing educational materials for decision-makers, the media, and the general public;• Developing a petition to achieve threatened or endangered species status for Oculina varicosa. The goal of Oceana’s deep-sea coral protection activities is to ban bottom trawling in all U.S. waters containing significant amounts of deep-sea corals and sponges by the end of 2006. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the activities that Oceana is engaged in to achieve this goal. As Oceana’s capacity develops in other parts of the world, its efforts to protect coral in other regions (especially Europe and South America) will increase as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an overview of the spatial distribution and morphology of coral banks in the Porcupine Seabight in relation to their environmental settings. The study area is characterised by well-delimited clusters of coral banks, each featuring typical bank morphology and environmental setting. In the central part of the basin, two mound provinces can be identified: a set of complex fl at topped seafloor mounds in the Hovland Mound province is flanked to the north by a crescent of numerous north-south elongated buried coral banks in the Magellan Mound province, along the eastern margin of the basin partly buried and seabed coral banks represent the Belgica Mound province. The banks are mound-shaped elevations, many of them hosting living deep-water corals (Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata, Desmophyllum cristagalli, Dendrophyllia sp.) and associated fauna. This active biological layer covers a dead assemblage of corals clogged with mud. All coral banks, buried or seabed, occur in association with current-induced features (e.g., scouring features, dunes) and steep palaeo- and present-seabed slopes. Only a few banks have a present-day seabed expression, which suggests that environmental conditions have been more favourable for bank development in the past. The depth range of the seabed coral banks coincides with the Mediterranean Outflow Water which may control indirectly the coral distribution. The distribution of corals in the southern part of the North Atlantic and the actual link with Mediterranean water suggest a possible migration of corals within the Mediterranean water along the NE Atlantic margin. The start-up phase of the coral bank development in the basin has taken place simultaneously for all provinces, and tentatively framed in times subsequent to a Late Pliocene period of erosion and non-deposition. It is considered that the sedimentary load of the currents plays an important role in the bank development. Coral banks accrete by the active baffling of sediment by the biological framework and growth of the biological cap. When sedimentation and biological growth get out of balance, the framework will progressively be clogged with sediment. Once sediment dominates the structure the coral banks get buried and draped by sediment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the associated fauna of the deep-sea gorgonian corals Paragorgia arborea and Primnoa resedaeformis. Composition and distribution of this fauna is described based on material from the continental shelf and slope off Atlantic Canada (300–600 m depth). Samples were collected from five areas with Remotely Operated Vehicle, video grab, and bottom trawl. The collected material consists of 25 samples, 13 from P. arborea and 12 from P. resedaeformis. A total of 114 species and 3915 individuals were recorded. The P. resedaeformis fauna was more abundant and diverse than the fauna of P. arborea, with 2651 specimens and 97 species found on the former and 1264 specimens and 47 species on the latter. Rarefaction analysis indicated that many more associated species are still to be found. Species richness and abundance was significantly correlated with coral morphology (e.g., number of branches, wet weight, and % exposed skeleton). Crustaceans dominated the fauna, contributing 46 % to the total number of individuals and 26 % to the total number of species. Two coral microhabitats were identified: 1) young and live parts of colonies and, 2) old parts with deposits and exposed skeleton. Most of the associated fauna was found in the latter habitat. There was a clear difference in fauna composition of the two coral species. Sessile hydroids, anemones, and molluscs were more abundant on P. resedaeformis. These organisms occurred attached to the hard substratum provided by the exposed skeleton. Parasitic copepods and polychaetes were more common on P. arborea. Two copepods, a lichomolgid ecto-parasite and a lamippid gall-forming endoparasite, were associated with P. arborea. The echinoderm Gorgonocephaluslamarckii was found in the high current environment on the outer branches of P. arborea. The shrimp Pandalus propinquus was hiding and resting on colonies of both coral species. Many of the associated taxa are also found on tropical gorgonians but the deepsea gorgonians lack the diverse decapod and gastropod-fauna of their tropical counterparts. The species richness of the deep-sea gorgonian coral fauna was higher than what has been observed for tropical gorgonians. In contrast to the tropical associates very few are obligate symbionts. Nevertheless, several of the species are rare in other habitats and have been recorded on the same and other gorgonian species in early studies from the eastern North Atlantic. The sampling gear collected the fauna differently. Corals from bottom trawls had a poorer associated fauna that differed in composition with material collected by ROV or video assisted grab. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep-water Oculina coral reefs, which are similar in structure and development to deep-water Lophelia reefs, stretch 167 km (90 nm) at depths of 60–100 m along the eastern Florida shelf of the United States. These consist of numerous pinnacles and ridges, 3–35 m in height, that are capped with thickets of living and dead coral, Oculina varicosa. Extensive areas of dead Oculina rubble are due in part to human impacts (e.g., fish and shrimp trawling, scallop dredging, anchoring, bottom longlines, and depth charges) but also may be due in part to natural processes such as bioerosion, disease, or global warming. In the 1970s, the reefs were teeming with fish. By the early 1990s, both commercial and recreational fisheries had taken a toll on the reefs, especially on the coral habitat and populations of grouper and snapper. In 1984, 315 km2 (92 nm2) was designated the Oculina Habitat of Particular Concern (OHAPC), prohibiting trawling, dredging, bottom longlines and anchoring, and establishing the first deep-sea coral marine protected area in the world. In 2000, the Oculina Marine Protected Area (MPA) was expanded to 1029 km2 (300 nm2). Despite these protective measures, manned submersible and ROV observations in the Oculina MPA between 1995 and 2003 suggest that portions of the coral habitat have been reduced to rubble since the 1970s, grouper spawning aggregations may be absent, and illegal trawling continues. This paper is a review of the results of the mapping, habitat characterization, and fish surveys from the early historical studies (1960–1980s) to the more recent surveys (1995–2003). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Belgica Mound province is one of three provinces where carbonate mounds are associated with cold-water coral species in Porcupine Seabight, west of Ireland. Building upon extensive existing datasets, the Polarstern ARK XIX/3a cruise, deploying the robotic submersible VICTOR6000 (ROV), was undertaken in June 2003. This paper presents an overview of preliminary results from a reconnaissance video survey over and between several steep-flanked Belgica Mounds (giant mounds) and from a microbathymetric survey over some smaller mounds (Moira Mounds). Visual evidence for a strong hydrodynamic regime in the vicinity of the carbonate mounds is found with the interaction between currents and sedimentation having an important role in mound growth and development. Only some mounds show a high percentage of live coral coverage although there is a clear increase of megafaunal concentrations and species on mounds. One area of the province (the eastern ridge of aligned mounds) revealed very little live coral cover, asymmetrical drift accumulations burying the eastern sides and sediment-clogged dead coral frameworks at the western sides. This is in contrast to other areas (e.g., the western alignment of mounds) that show abundant live coral cover at present. In nearly all parts of the survey area the impact of fisheries, especially demersal trawling, is noted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the critical information needs identified at the 2003 Deep-Sea Corals Workshop in Galway, Ireland, was to locate and chart deep-sea corals in order to develop reliable estimates of their distribution and abundance. While reports of deep-sea corals from the Gulf of Mexico date back to the 1860s, relatively little is known about their distribution or abundance. This paper attempts to provide a current assessment of the occurrence of Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata in water depths greater than 200 m in the Gulf of Mexico by summarizing records from (1) published material, (2) the 2003 National Museum of Natural History Taxonomic Database, (3) findings obtained during the September-October 2003 NOAA-OE RV Ronald H. Brown cruise RB-03-07-leg-2 in the northern Gulf, and (4) from various unpublished sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing pressure on marine ecosystems resulting from various kinds of human activities has led to a number of global and regional international initiatives and conventions. Most prominent for northern European Seas are the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea, the OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, and the Birds and Habitats Directives of the EU. The fundamental goals of marine nature conservation can be described as to conserve, protect, restore and manage: the functioning of marine ecosystems and their services;the regenerative capacity of natural resources and their sustained availability for human use;natural diversity, population dynamics, density and age structure of marine fauna and flora;intact and diverse natural marine habitats and biotopes; andthe characteristic features and beauty of nature and viewscapes. These conservation objectives can only be achieved if human activities affecting our oceans and seas were conducted by applying six key principles: (1)the precautionary principle;(2)best environmental practices (BEP);(3)best available technologies (BAT);(4)the polluter-pays principle;(5)the compensation or substitution principle; and(6)the avoidance principle. Further, the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities as has been clarified by the Helsinki- and the OSPAR Conventions should always be applied. Probably the most effective measure to achieve substantial marine conservation is to establish coherent networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) at regional and global levels. This needs to be complemented by general habitats and species protection and enhancement, as well as by undiminished efforts to reduce unsustainable extraction of natural resources, to minimize eutrophication and pollution and to hinder new discharges to the seas. Red lists of threatened, endangered and/or declining species, habitats or biotopes would help assess the status of marine biodiversity, the effects of human activities, and the possible success of interventions. This paper describes the most relevant international conventions and regulations with respect to marine nature conservation of the seas in Northern Europe (North East Atlantic and Baltic Sea). The current implementation status of conservation measures and specifically of MPAs and some next steps are also outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term "replenishment" is often misleading, as it suggests that soils are poor through depletion by farmers and that soils should be restored to their original state for agricultural production. This philosophy created awareness of the problems confronted by African farmers. It neglects, however, the heterogeneous redistribution of nutrients that is inherent to agricultural land use. Active and passive transport of organic matter causes centripetal concentration of nutrients around farms and villages and maintains or even improves the soil fertility of crucial fields at the cost of surrounding land. The advice to use fertilizers on bush fields in view of the use of compost and manure on compound fields is like "putting the cart before the horse"; the value-cost ratio of using inorganic fertilizer on compound fields is higher than that on bush fields because of the negative organic matter and nutrient balances in bush fields. The integrated use of inorganic fertilizers and organic forms of manure triggers a positive spiral of improved nutrient-use efficiency and improved soil organic matter status. The increase in value-cost ratio of fertilizer use improves access to fertilizer and other external inputs. Where crop- livestock integration is an important component of agricultural intensification, the centripetal concentration can even turn into the opposite; a centrifugal transport that replenishes (planned or unplanned) the depleted surroundings of farms and villages. Active replenishment of depleted soils is no requirement for agricultural development; intensification can start on village fields where fertility is maintained or improved. However, public investment in soils, focusing on reinforcement of the positive effects of the centripetal concentration of organic matter and nutrients, is recommended; it enables farmers to start fertilizer use where even if the compound fields at present do not allow it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities are important driving forces in environmental trends as a consequence of the increase in the share of the global population that reside in urban areas and the large intensity of activities of urban dwellers. As the world continues to urbanize, however, humans have lost contact with soil and the services it provides to sustain life. A review of the literature shows that the ability of urban activities to influence the physical conditions and pollution levels in soils at a distance is increasing. Cities and urban processes have had dramatic but varying impacts on soil physical and biochemical properties and pollutant loads, all of which affect the life-supporting services of soils. As developing countries continue to industrialize, soil pollutant contamination in their cities continue to increase to levels warranting immediate action. We argue for a global assessment of urban soils to identify the patterns, processes, and unique circumstances of anthropogenic impacts. There is also the need for soil protection and remediation in areas already undergoing change as a result of urban development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globalization and increasing population pressure on food demand and land and water resources have stimulated interest in nutrient and virtual water flows at the international level. West Asia/North Africa (WANA), Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa are net importers not only of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) but also of virtual water in agricultural commodities. Nevertheless, the widely recognized declines in soil fertility and problems related to water shortage continue to increase, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The nutrients imported are commonly concentrated in the cities, creating waste disposal problems rather than alleviating deficiencies in rural soils. And also the water shortage problems continue to contribute to intensified desertification processes, which again lead to increased urbanization and thus water shortage problems in cities. Countries with a net loss of NPK and virtual water in agricultural commodities are the major food exporting countries-the USA, Australia, and some Latin American countries. Understanding the manifold factors determining the nutrient and water flows is essential. Only then can solutions be found which ensure a sustainable use of nutrients and water resources. The chapter ends by stressing the need for factoring environmental costs into the debate on nutrient and water management, and advocates more transdisciplinary research on these important problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irrigation is a precondition for stable crop production in areas characterized by marked variability in rainfall distribution. Despite substantial investment in irrigation projects in the past decades, global irrigated cropland area has hardly grown. Here we discuss the factors related to the sustainability of irrigation and strategies to alleviate them. Water resources deterioration, diversion of water for other uses, and soil degradation are the major factors affecting the environmental sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Water logging results from the tendency to apply water in excess of irrigation requirements. It leads to reduced aeration, nutrient uptake, and crop yields. Salt buildup occurs through the process of capillary rise when the water table rises close to the surface. Salinity risks also increases when saline water is used for irrigation and when poor fertilizer and poor irrigation management are combined. Groundwater drainage is the ultimate precautionary measure against groundwater rise and salt accumulation, but its timely installation is essential for optimal result. Constant soil monitoring and the use of systematic diagnosis testing could also reveal the incipience of soil salinity. Future global warming would likely exacerbate water demand for irrigation with the implications that crops would grow in hotter, drier, and more saline conditions. The ability of irrigated agriculture to meet future challenges would therefore depend on the progress of new research to enhance adaptation to these changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil erosion is one of the biggest global environmental problems resulting in both on-site and off-site effects. The economic implication of soil erosion is more serious in developing countries because of lack of capacity to cope with it and also to replace lost nutrients. These countries have also high population growth which leads to intensified use of already stressed resources and expansion of production to marginal and fragile lands. Such processes aggravate erosion and productivity declines, resulting in a population-poverty-land degradation cycle. Rapid population growth, cultivation on steep slopes, clearing of vegetation, and overgrazing are the main factors that accelerate soil erosion in Ethiopia. The annual rate of soil loss in the country is higher than the annual rate of soil formation rate. Annually, Ethiopia losses over 1.5 billion tons of topsoil from the highlands to erosion which could have added about 1.5 million tons of grain to the country's harvest. This indicates that soil erosion is a very serous threat to food security of people and requires urgent management intervention. To circumvent the impacts of erosion, it is important to know the severity of the problem and the main controlling factors. Since different portions of the landscape vary in sensitivity to erosion due to differences in their geomorphological, geological, and vegetation attributes, it is also necessary to identify high erosion risk areas in order to plan site-specific management interventions. Depending on the prevailing erosion processes and controlling factors, the efficiency of soil conservation measures may vary. This calls for the assessment of the soil conservation potential of different management practices. This study was conducted in northern Ethiopia in order to assess rates of soil loss, investigate controlling factors, and analyze spatial patterns and management alternatives. Section 5.1 reviews the impacts of soil erosion at global and regional scale. Section 5.2 discusses the magnitude of soil erosion in northern Ethiopia based on reservoir survey and Section 5.3 explores its major determinant factors. Section 5.4 applies soil erosion models to identify high erosion risk areas for targeted management intervention and Section 5.5 simulates the potentials of different land management/soil conservation techniques in reducing soil loss of selected catchments. Section 5.6 summarizes the major findings of the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

About one-sixth of the world's land area, that is, about one-third of the land used for agriculture, has been affected by soil degradation in the historic past. While most of this damage was caused by water and wind erosion, other forms of soil degradation are induced by biological, chemical, and physical processes. Since the 1950s, pressure on agricultural land has increased considerably owing to population growth and agricultural modernization. Small-scale farming is the largest occupation in the world, involving over 2.5 billion people, over 70% of whom live below the poverty line. Soil erosion, along with other environmental threats, particularly affects these farmers by diminishing yields that are primarily used for subsistence. Soil and water conservation measures have been developed and applied on many farms. Local and science-based innovations are available for most agroecological conditions and land management and farming types. Principles and measures developed for small-scale as well as modern agricultural systems have begun to show positive impacts in most regions of the world, particularly in wealthier states and modern systems. Much more emphasis still needs to be given to small-scale farming, which requires external support for investment in sustainable land management technologies as an indispensable and integral component of farm activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The land system is a coupled human-environment system comprising land use, land cover, and terrestrial ecosystems (Global Land Project, 2005). Land use connects humans to the biophysical environment. Conversely, the characteristics and changes in the biophysical environment influence our land-use decision-making. Thus, there is a continuum of states resulting from the interactions between natural (biophysical) and human (social) subsystems of land (Fig. 1.1). Though not always, the dynamics of this continuum generally moves toward increasing human dominance and impact. Thus, mitigating adverse environmental changes requires an improved knowledge of human impact on natural processes of the terrestrial biosphere. Soil is a basic resource for land use. It is the foundation of all civilizations (Hillel, 1992), serves as a major link between climate and biogeochemical systems (Yaalon, 2000), supports biodiversity, and plays an important role in the ability of ecosystems to provide diverse services necessary for human well-being (Young & Crawford, 2004). Thus, soils must not be neglected in any development endeavor either at local, regional, or global level. Good soils are not evenly distributed around the world. Depending on parent material, climate, relief, vegetation, and time that determine soil formation, soils have inherent constraints that limit their productivity for various uses. Most soil constraints are not mutually exclusive. For instance, highly acidic soils with aluminum toxicity also have high phosphorus-fixation capacity. The inherent constraints of soils for agricultural production vary widely across regions. For example, erosion hazard, defined as very steep slopes (>30%) or moderately high slope (8-30%) accompanied by a sharp textural contrast within the soil profile, varies from 10% for soils of North Africa and Near East to 20% for soils of Europe. On the other hand, shallowness, the occurrence of rocks close to the soil surface, varies from 11 percent for soils of South and Central America to 23% for soils of North Africa and Near East (FAO, 2000). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The holarctic mutualisms between Cembrae Pines (Pinus, Pinaceae) and nutcrackers (Nucifraga, Corvidae) comprise important textbook examples of interaction and coevolution. However, only recently we have learned to what extent nutcracker seed caching influences the ecology and biology of these pines. The North American mutualism between whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) and Clark’s nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) demonstrates the greatest array of consequences to the pine, particularly in fire-dependent communities in the northern Rocky Mountains. The impacts of Clark’s nutcracker seed-caching on whitebark pine are evident at multiple spatial and temporal scales, from tree growth form and fine-scale genetic structure and the timing of regeneration and community development to regional and rangewide genetic structure, and post-Pleistocene range expansion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides Richardson) is a small herbivory subterranean rodent. It is known as an eager digger and in areas with intense activity it is suspected of damaging young tree growth. Results from soil analysis and snow measurements are presented to describe the pocket gophers’ summer and winter environment within a ribbon forest in the forest-alpine tundra-ecotone on Niwot Ridge, Colorado Front Range. The distribution of snow and the structure of snow cover are influencing the pocket gopher’s life under cover. Soil analysis showed that pocket gopher activity modified the soil environment. The amount of coarse soil particles in the upper topsoil layers was increased compared to topsoil with no gopher disturbance. The distribution of organic matter within the upper 12 cm was more homogeneous in areas with gopher excavation. None of the damages found on young trees could be attributed to pocket gopher activities without question. The most obvious damages were reduced growth at the windward side (83 %) followed by crippled growth (60 %) and damages caused by snow fungi (32 %). In summary, the pocket gophers in the ribbon forests on Niwot ridge are actively modifying the soil environment by exposing mineral soil and increasing the likelihood of soil erosion by wind and water. There is, however, no evidence that pocket gophers are responsible for the visible prevalent damage on juvenile conifers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The habitat-forming scleractinian coral Lophelia pertusa supports an ecosystem that is widely known to occur in the bathyal marine ecologic realm along deep shelves, oceanic banks, seamounts and continental margins. Therefore, L. pertusa is generally considered a ‘deep-water’ or ‘deep-sea’ coral. In contrast, this study analyses the environmental controls of this bathyal ecosystem where it is thriving well in the non-bathyal shallow-water setting of the Swedish Kosterfjord area (NE Skagerrak). This is one of several shallow-water L. pertusa occurrences in Scandinavian waters where saline and temperature stable oceanic waters intrude as topographically-guided underflows onto the inner shelf and adjacent fjords, driven by an estuarine circulation. The L. pertusa occurrence of the Säcken site in the northern Kosterfjord exists at 80–90 m water depth and only a few tens of metres beneath a permanently brackish surface water layer. At the depth of the coral patches, however, the hydrographic data reveal fully marine conditions, which are ensured by a deeper inflow of Atlantic water through the Norwegian Trench into the Skagerrak. SEM analyses of resin casts taken from dead L. pertusa skeletons yield an endolith assemblage dominated by boring sponges such as Cliona spp. (trace: Entobia ispp.), the boring bryozoan Spathipora, the fungus Dodgella priscus (trace Saccomorpha clava) and an unknown fungus (trace: Orthogonum lineare). Such a composition exclusively of heterotroph organisms resembles the Saccomorpha clava / Orthogonum lineare ichnocoenosis which is regarded as indicative for fossil and Recent, open marine, aphotic environments. This interpretation is supported by direct light measurements at the Säcken site, which indicate aphotic conditions for at least most of the year. The finding of bathyal communities in comparatively shallow waters is linked to factors that force deeper oceanic water masses to surface. Such situations are likely to be expected where an estuarine circulation prevails, or in deep-sea basins bordered by narrow shelves and with local upwelling cells driven by the wind regime, facilitating the intrusion of eutrophic deeper waters to shallow depths — including the benthic communities. This circumstance reveals a major potential pitfall in the palaeobathymetric interpretation of fossil L. pertusa occurrences, which tend to be interpreted as bathyal palaeoenvironments. Strikingly, almost all known exposed ancient L. pertusa locations (e.g. Rhodes and Messina Strait in the Mediterranean Sea or the Cook Strait, New Zealand) derive from tectonically active regions with steep bathymetric gradients and a specific confined topography which could have forced deep water to the near surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Samples of Lophelia were taken at two localities in the Lindos Bay Clay (Lower Pleistocene) of the Rhodes Formation on the Dodecanese Island of Rhodes. At a coastal exposure at Vasphi, northeast Rhodes, about 200 fragments of Lophelia were collected in situ from the clay and surface preservation of these is consequently particularly fine. The second collection of material was made at an exposure south of Lardos, about 35 km further south. This material comprised some 800 fragments of Lophelia collected both in situ and loose; preservation quality of the surfaces of these is variable. Both collections derive from single fl at beds of coral fragments. Bioerosion of the corals shows a good diversity, comprising about 18 ichnotaxa, five in open nomenclature, including: Orthogonum lineare, Saccomorpha clava and other microborings (probably exclusively of endolithic fungi), Oichnus isp. (pits and holes of various forms, probably all deriving from foraminifers), dish-shaped etchings possibly produced by the foraminifer Hyrrokkin sarcophaga, Palaeosabella prisca (polychaete worm borings), Caulostrepsis isp. (polychaete borings), probable Maeandropolydora isp. (polychaete borings), Talpina isp. (phoronid borings), Podichnus centrifugalis (attachment scars of brachiopods), Centrichnus eccentricus (attachment scars of anomiid bivalves), Gnathichnus pentax (tooth scratches by regular echinoids), and Entobia ispp. (borings of endolithic sponges). Three small, radiating forms around a millimetre in size are difficult to attribute to particular tracemaking organisms. They are retained in open nomenclature as Semidendrina-form (possibly foraminifera borings), a non-camerate radiating form and a hirsute camerate form. No ctenostome bryozoan borings were observed. Talpina isp. is abundant at Vasphi but scarce at Lardos. Otherwise the relative abundance of the trace fossils is comparable at the two localities. The total amount of bioerosion varies considerably in different parts of the coral skeleton. On the basis of SEM imagery, three categories of bioerosional intensity are introduced: 1, slight bioerosion; 2, medium bioerosion, and 3, heavy bioerosion. The distribution of Gnathichnus pentax and the absence of Radulichnus inopinatus indicates an aphotic environment. The microbioerosional assemblage correlates with the Saccomorpha clava / Orthogonum lineare Ichnocoenosis, which also indicates an aphotic seafl oor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on bioerosion of an aphotic deep-water coral mound, the Propeller Mound, in the northern Porcupine Seabight. The predominant framework builder is the cosmopolitan cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa. We demonstrate bioerosion patterns within the skeleton of L. pertusa using a new embedding method under vacuum conditions with subsequent scanning electron microscope analysis. Following this method, 23 ichnospecies are documented and related to heterotrophic organism groups such as Bacteria (1), Fungi (12), Bryozoa (1), Foraminifera (3), and Porifera (6). Predominant endolithic sponges in the framework of L. pertusa are Alectona millari and Spiroxya heteroclita. Owing to its characteristic growth and surface ornamentation, trace casts of Spiroxya heteroclita are correlated to the well-known trace fossil Entobia laquea. Investigations of thin sections of post-mortem skeletons show a clearly pronounced endolithic tiering of three penetration depths. The analysed samples are divided into three macroscopic preservational stages differing in post-mortem age, and exposure of the framework. Bioerosion affects bare parts of the coral skeleton. Bioeroders preferably settle on one side of an upright growing colony. A succession usually starts with the infestation by bacteria and fungi. Contact zones of epiliths are preferred areas for penetration by endoliths. Sponges and foraminifers appear 10 cm below the zone of living polyps, followed by boring bryozoans 15 cm below. However, in one case the sponge Spiroxya heteroclita is documented in the skeleton of living polyps. Frameworks exposed to water host 19 ichnospecies, thus forming the most diverse ichnocoenosis, whereas nine ichnospecies are documented in coral specimens buried by sediment. Mapping of epi- and endoliths in living and freshly necrotic colonies represents a useful tool for monitoring environmental conditions and define ecological “health” of deep-water corals in a rapid large-scale assessment of the state of coral reefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An overview of preliminary results from a series of recent Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) dives on the deep-water coral provinces of the Porcupine Bank, Irish continental margin, NE Atlantic is presented. The Porcupine Bank exhibits numerous giant carbonate mounds (up to 100s of metres in height) that occur predominantly, although not exclusively, on topographic ridges. The results revealed that, although these ridges have a tectonic origin, contemporaneous activity is typified by erosion due to strong hydrodynamic controls. The carbonate mounds are colonized by a variety of suspension feeders and associated fauna including framework-building corals (e.g., Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata) although dense coral reef-like fauna coverage is not evident at present. The ecology of the carbonate mounds varied widely. Sessile megafauna, such as sponges, gorgonians and framework-building corals (e.g., Lophelia pertusa), were abundant on some of the carbonate mounds. Other mounds were relatively barren and appeared to be undergoing a natural senescence, with a much lower biomass of megafauna than is typical of shallow-water coral reefs. Some mounds had been damaged by demersal trawls, with smashed coral and lost gear common, whereas others appeared relatively pristine with occasional evidence of man-made litter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Davidson Seamount is located 120 km to the southwest of Monterey, along the California coast, USA. It is 2,400 m tall; yet, it is still 1,250 m below the sea surface. In May 2002, 90 hours of digital video was recorded from all depths of the Davidson Seamount, using a remotely operated vehicle, and deep-sea coral specimens were collected. Preliminary analyses indicate that 20 coral taxa were found, and they were almost exclusively located in high relief, ridge areas. Other species were noted on or adjacent to the corals. Because of its pristine nature, as well as human threats and great potential for education, the Davidson Seamount is under consideration for protection as part of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is much debate about how to protect deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems using the data currently available. The Aleutian Islands in Alaska contain some of the most abundant, diverse, and pristine deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems on Earth. From 1990 to 2002, U.S. federal fishery observer data indicates approximately 2,176,648 kg of coral and sponge bycatch occurred in the Aleutian Islands, equaling 52 % of all coral and sponge bycatch in Alaska. Coral and sponge bycatch rates in the Aleutians were over 12 times the rate in the Bering Sea or Gulf of Alaska. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) estimates that 87 % of coral bycatch and 91 % of sponge bycatch is caused by bottom trawling in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands management areas. The conservation organization Oceana developed an interdisciplinary fishery management approach to mitigating adverse impacts of fishing on deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems, which has been used by NMFS to formulate a habitat protection alternative for the Aleutian Islands that is being considered in an Environmental Impact Statement. The Oceana Approach is offered as a cost effective model for reducing the adverse effects of fishing on deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems. The approach uses observer data to identify areas of high coral and sponge bycatch rates to develop a comprehensive management policy that allows bottom trawling only in specific designated areas with high fish harvest and low habitat impacts. All areas not specified as open would be closed to bottom trawling. To prevent effort displacement, bottom trawl effort is reduced by the amount that historically occurred in areas that would become closed. The Oceana Approach also includes coral and sponge bycatch limits and a plan for comprehensive seafloor research, mapping, and monitoring. An enforcement strategy for these management measures is developed based on agency capabilities, and includes increased observer coverage, vessel monitoring systems, and electronic logbooks. This approach allows for continued catch of target species with minimal adverse impacts on coral and sponge habitat. Successful implementation of the Oceana Approach will protect areas of high known trawl impacts to deep-sea coral and sponge ecosystems and prevent trawl effort from moving into new, unexplored areas. The methodology is recommended for application to other regions and should be adjusted based on the available fishery and biological data for each region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deep-sea (>200 m) represents the largest portion of the ocean, but it is probably the least understood because of the technological challenges and financial resources required to explore and research this environment. With the advancement of underwater technology, astonishing images of deep-sea corals living at depths from the surface to greater than 1000 m are now becoming available to both policy makers and the public. More specifically, in the North Atlantic Ocean, these images have led many countries to begin to assess the distribution, status, health, and potential threats faced by these important ecosystems, which appear to be connected by the uniting influence of the Gulf Stream and its associated currents. Since deep-sea coral ecosystems extend beyond national boundaries and encounter similar threats, it was determined that a cooperative effort on both sides of the Atlantic could be beneficial to maximize available resources, share expertise, and exchange data to rapidly increase scientific understanding of deep-sea coral ecosystems. Thus, an international Deep-Sea Corals Workshop was held to identify critical information needs related to: locating and mapping deep-sea corals; understanding more about coral biology and ecology; and using specific deep-sea coral species as indicators of climate change. Priority information needs identified at the workshop were the need to: (1) conduct both low- and high-resolution mapping to locate and characterize deep-sea coral habitats; (2) conduct research on factors that influence deep-sea coral life history patterns; (3) examine how they function as habitat for fish and invertebrate species; (4) develop a comprehensive inventory of deep-sea coral species; and (5) further efforts to analyze past climate changes and to improve climate forecasting models. Described herein are: the results of the Deep-Sea Corals Workshop; other events with a focus on deep-sea corals; and potential pathways to increase U.S.-international collaborative partnerships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zooxanthellate scleractinian corals have been shown to preserve important archives of seasonal variations of climate variables, such as sea surface temperature, salinity, and productivity. By analogy, the recognition of correlated chemical signals in azooxanthellate deep-water corals may provide an important new approach to help unravel the role of intermediate and deep waters in determining climate variability. A first step to determine the suitability of deep-water scleractinian corals as potential paleoceanographic-paleoclimatic tools requires the demonstration of coherent geochemical signals in their skeletons. With this in mind, trace and minor element ratios Sr/Ca, Mg/Ca, U/Ca, B/Ca, P/Ca, Ba/Ca and Mn/Ca have been measured in two deep-water solitary scleractinian corals (Desmophyllum dianthus) collected from Last Glacial submerged banks in the Mediterranean basin and in the Great Australian Bight. Most elements show distinct, highly correlated patterns of variation. Although preliminary, these results illustrate the potential use of trace and minor element concentrations in the deep-water scleractinian corals to provide new constraints on the composition and evolution of intermediate and deep waters and thus introduce new perspectives in paleoceanography, such as the assessment of changes in both deep-sea nutrient chemistry and ocean circulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The longest available time series on ocean currents indicates that the southward flow of water from the Greenland Sea is weakening, and that correlative large-amplitude changes have occurred in the rate of formation of intermediate Labrador Sea water. These have been linked to changes in regional climate which, if trends continue, could within 30 years alter the flow of the North Atlantic Drift and possibly interrupt the formation of Labrador Sea water, profoundly affecting regional climates, marine ecosystems and fisheries. We are attempting to use the carbonate skeletons of cold-water corals to find out how rapidly and how often the thermohaline circulation of the NE vs. NW Atlantic has changed in the past, just as tree rings and ice cores are used to investigate climate change on land. We have focussed on the NE Atlantic for our preliminary work, notably the Faroe-Shetland Channel: a major gateway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Norwegian Sea. Warm North Atlantic Drift water passes north through this channel on the surface, warming northern Europe. Cold Norwegian Sea Overflow Water returns at depth, contributing to the formation of North Atlantic Deep Water. Existing records are too short to allow conclusions regarding recent temporal changes in this inflow, so proxies are sought. We have analysed live-collected Lophelia pertusa skeletons collected in October 2001 using a ring dredge from RV Scotia along the worlds longest-running hydrographic transect (from 1893). Corals were sectioned using a slow-speed Isomet saw, and sampled for isotopic analysis using a Merchantek micromill. Observation of sectioned corals revealed dense-less dense couplets, as in every coral studied to date from tropical to deep cold-water environments worldwide. We sampled circumferentially, in the centres of individual bands, so as to produce temperature estimates using the “lines” technique of Smith et al. (2000). The results were simultaneously encouraging and confusing. Each of the coral samples generated lines from which temperatures could be estimated. Dense skeletal bands had lower temperatures than the less-dense bands, hence we conclude these were winter and summer bands, respectively. The mean annual temperature (MAT) range determined from one of the corals was 3.8°C. Pooling results from several corals yielded a lower estimate for MAT range: 2.3°C. The absolute temperatures from the corals, however, were somewhat lower than the instrumental record with “winter” records being more depleted than the “summer values”. This was unexpected and shows that determining detailed climate records from L. pertusa may be more difficult than hoped. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like other biogenic carbonate that can be dated, aragonite skeleton of deep-sea corals is a potential archive of oceanographic changes over time. Stable isotope analysis is commonly used in paleoceanographic reconstruction of past seawater temperatures, however, offset from isotopic equilibrium as well as recent observations about isotope distribution with the micro-structure of deep-water corals implies non direct paleoclimate reconstructions. Here we test the influence of the sampling scale on oceanographic interpretations. The stable isotope composition for different modern calyxes of Lophelia pertusa has been analyzed at different scales using either a macro or a micro-sampling technique. The comparison of the obtained results from the two sampling techniques shows that the isotopic variability observed with the micro-sampling is twice the one with macro-sampling. Moreover the macro-sampling is not an average of what happens at a more precise scale. Nevertheless a realistic seawater temperature estimate can be retrieved using the equation of Smith et al. (2000) for both the macro and the micro-sampled corals. However, a test of the reproducibility on a single calyx reveals important isotopic inhomogenities at a very fine scale (∼µm), yielding an external reproducibility of the seawater temperature estimates of about ±0.7°C for micro sampled corals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that the deep-sea gorgonian coral Primnoa resedaeformis may be an important paleoceanographic archive. Seventeen colonies collected from the upper slope of the NW Atlantic margin (229 – 447 m) were analyzed to see if skeletal Mg/Ca is related to temperature. Analyses were focused on the calcite cortex region of skeletal sections to avoid interference from organic Mg in the horny layers found closer to the center of sections. Comparison of bulk skeletal Mg/Ca with hydrographic temperature yielded the relationship Mg/Ca (mmol/mol)=5 (+/− 1.4) T (°C)+64 (+/− 10). This relationship was used to calibrate profiles of Mg/Ca measured across the annual rings of one large, well-dated colony, over the period 1950–2002. Mg/Ca profiles were broadly consistent among three sections spaced 10 cm apart along the main trunk of the colony. These profiles were in general agreement with the local instrumental record of temperature at 375 – 450 m. Some discrepancies between the coral and instrumental records of temperature may be a result of chronological error, poor sampling density, or additional factors influencing Mg partitioning in the coral. Overall, these preliminary results support the hypothesis that temperature drives Mg/Ca in the skeletal calcite of this species. It appears that environmentally meaningful records from Primnoa resedaeformis will be found at decadal scales or longer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two samples of the calcitic deep-sea coral Primnoa resedaeformis have been analysed for Mg/Ca ratios by micro-beam methods ( laser-ablation ICP-MS and electron microprobe). Continuous profiles of Mg/Ca have been studied with the aim of establishing the reproducibility of the variations in different parts of the coral, and therefore the potential use of Mg/Ca as a paleoceanographic or paleoclimatic tracer. A method of spectral decomposition based on box-filter smoothing has been developed for analysing the signals. This method shows that all profiles measured contain some degree of irreproducibility. Much of this irreproducibility appears to be white-noise added by the analytical methods. The amplitude of this noise is around 15 % of the signal average for the Nd-YAG laser-ablation system at Memorial University of Newfoundland, 5–6 % for the electron microprobe at Dalhousie University, and 4–4.5 % for the ArF Excimer laser-ablation system at the Australian National University. In the case of the LA-ICP-MS analyses, this noise may relate to uneven ablation of material from the coral and/or an uneven size distribution of particles entering the ICP-MS plasma. For the most stable system (ANU’s LA-ICP-MS), features on distance scales smaller than 150–200 µm will be obscured by the noise, and features smaller than 500 µm should be interpreted with caution. There is some evidence that the coral itself contains compositional heterogeneity, although reproducibility is mostly limited by instrumental noise. We recommend that several analytical profiles be compared before any attempt is made to interpret Mg/Ca variations in terms of paleoceanographic changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lophelia pertusa is a deep-sea scleractinian coral (azooxanthellate) found on the continental margins of the major world oceans. Built of aragonite it can be precisely dated and measured for stable isotope composition (C–O) to reconstruct past oceanic conditions. However, the relation between stable isotope and skeleton microstructures, i.e. centres of calcification and surrounding fibres, is crucial for understanding the isotopic patterns. Values for δ18O and δ13C in Lophelia pertusa were determined at a micrometer scale using an ion microprobe (SIMS - Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry). In this coral species, centres of calcification are large (50 µm) and arranged in lines. The centres of calcification have a restricted range of variation in δ18O (−2.8 ± 0.3 ‰ (V-PDB)), and a larger range in δ13C (14.3 to 10.9 ‰ (V-PDB)). Surrounding skeletal fibres exhibit large isotopic variation both for C and O (up to 12 ‰) and δ13C and δ18O are positively correlated. The C and O isotopic composition of the centres of calcification deviate from this linear trend at the lightest δ18O values of the surrounding fibres. The fine-scaled variation of δ18O is probably the result of two processes: (1) isotopic equilibrium calcification with at least 1 pH unit variation in the calcification fluid and (2) kinetic fractionation. The apparent δ13C disequilibrium in Lophelia pertusa may be the result of mixing between depleted δ13C metabolic CO2 (respiration) and DIC coming directly from seawater. This study underlines the close relationship between microstructure and stable isotopes in corals. This relationship must also be taken into consideration for major elements like Mg and trace elements (U-Sr-Ba) increasing the reliability of the geochemical tools used in paleoceanography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Benthic Foraminifera found attached to the deep-sea coral Primnoa resedaeformis may be used to establish paleo-coral locations long after the coral has disappeared. Recent coral research cruises have revealed that the coral on the Scotian Margin is in peril and in many cases no longer exists. Sea floor video footage suggests various fishing methods have destroyed much of the coral as it has in coastal areas off Norway and Alaska. To date deep-sea corals are sparse on the Scotian Margin; therefore evidence preserved in the sediment may establish whether corals were present and more abundant in the past. A representative assemblage of benthic foraminiferans found attached to the deep-sea coral Primnoa resedaeformis may be the evidence necessary to provide presence/absence indicators long after the coral has disappeared. Both foraminiferal species are known to be only associated with the coral, and distortion of the ventral side (attached) of common foraminiferal species found in the sediment, may provide a clue to past coral habitat. Identifying a deep-sea coral paleo-habitat indicator provides insight into the extent to which it existed. Video footage from coral cruises over the last three years indicates that coral and fish go hand in hand, an important observation for a region where fishing comprises 23 % of the local economy. Twenty-eight foraminiferal species were found in a range of abundances on nine deep-sea coral specimens of Primnoa resedaeformis. Attached foraminiferans are found on the basal sections of the coral where they colonize onto the hard calcite substrate. One of the more common and consistent foraminiferal species found attached to the coral, Discanomalina semipunctata, is not found commonly on the continental margin in non-coral areas and may provide in situ evidence of past coral habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rate of discovery of reefs of the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa (Linnaeus, 1758) has been remarkable, and attributable to the increased use of underwater video. These reefs form a major three-dimensional habitat in deeper waters where little other ‘cover’ for fish is available. They are common in the eastern North Atlantic, and occur at least in the western North Atlantic and off central Africa. There are also other non-reef records of Lophelia in the Atlantic, and in Indian and Pacific oceans. Thus, not only are these reefs a significant habitat on a local scale, but they may also provide an important habitat over a very wide geographic scale. The present study examined the association of fish species with Lophelia in the Northeast Atlantic, including the Trondheimsfjord and Sula Ridge in Norway, Kosterfjord in Sweden, Darwin Mounds west of Scotland, and Rockall Bank, Rockall Trough and Porcupine Seabight off Ireland. The fish fauna associated with a shipwreck west of Shetland was also studied. Data were collected from 11 study sites at 8 locations, using 52 hours of video and 15 reels of still photographs. Video and still photographs were collected from (1) manned submersible, (2) surface controlled remotely operated vehicle (ROV), (3) a towed “hopper” camera, (4) wide angle survey photography (WASP), (5) seabed high resolution imaging platform (SHRIMP), and (6) an in situ time-lapse camera “Bathysnap”. It was possible to identify 90 % of fish observed to species level and 6.5 % to genus or family level. Only 3.5 % of the fish were not identifiable. A guide to the fishes is given at http://www.ecoserve.ie/projects/aces/. Twenty-five species of fishes from 17 families were recorded over all the sites, of which 17 were of commercial importance and comprised 82 % of fish individuals observed. These commercial fish species contribute 90 % of commercial fish tonnage in the North Atlantic. The habitats sampled were comprised of 19 % reef, 20 % transitional zone (i.e. between living coral and debris zone), 25 % coral debris and 36 % off-reef seabed. Depth was the most significant parameter in influencing the fish associated with the reefs, both at the species and family level. There was a complete separation of sites above and below 400–600 m depth by multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) analysis. Less distinct assemblages of fish species were associated with each habitat. Fish species richness and abundance was greater on the reef than surrounding seabed. In fact, 92 % of species, and 80 % of individual fish were associated with the reef. The present data indicates that these reefs have a very important functional role in deep-water ecosystems as fish habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep-sea dredging of sediment-starved steep reliefs in the Strait of Sicily (cruise CS96 of RV Urania) recovered various benthic organisms previously unknown or poorly documented in the Mediterranean basin. This Mediterranean case-study refers to deep coral substrates represented by loose or cemented skeletal remains of Desmophyllum, Lophelia and Madrepora, subfossil giant oyster shells, micriticised sponges, from c. 250–1000 m depth. Here we present some of the more remarkable species: one foraminiferan (Planogypsina?); the sponges Stylocordyla pellita, Sphinctrella gracilis and Siphonidium ramosum; a bioluminescent zoantharian (still unidentified); the boring actinian Fagesia loveni; the stoloniferous octocoral Scleranthelia musiva; the gorgonian Dendrobrachia fallax; and the holothurian Psolidium complanatum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seamounts are drowned volcanoes rising from abyssal depths. Fishes on seamounts exploit a range of landscape features that likely enhance probabilities of prey capture and reduce predator success. The epifaunal community on seamounts is dominated by suspension-feeders of which deep-water corals are a dominant element. Such taxa are widespread components of seamount landscapes but their functional role in mediating the distribution and abundance of fishes remains unknown. Here we propose a hierarchical habitat classification matrix, which includes deep-water corals, as a foundation for partitioning seamount landscapes in which fishes are observed. This scheme is based on our observations of fish distributions from the New England Seamounts, as well as literature review. Features of an idealized seamount landscape were divided at multiple spatial scales and included features at habitat class, subclass and microhabitat levels. Habitat classes were divided by major sediment types (i.e., basalt, fine grained sediments). Habitat subclasses included pavement, ridges, walls, ledges and tubes for basalt substrates and flat sediment, ripples and waves for fine-grained sediments. Microhabitat features were classified as flow related features, emergent structures (i.e., geologic and biologic including deep-water corals), and other biogenic structures (e.g., coral debris, depressions, burrows). Variations in the distribution of structures at multiple spatial scales can influence boundary flows and the ability of fishes to search for prey (e.g., where active searching by swimming can occur, where pelagic prey delivery is sufficient when station-keeping) and avoid predators (e.g., the ability to efficiently exhibit various avoidance behaviors such as shelter seeking). Placing fish abundance data in such a matrix of habitat types enables a variety of statistical approaches for testing for non-random distributions of fishes on seamounts and quantifying the functional role of corals as fish habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metazoan meiofauna associated with Lophelia pertusa reef degradation zones in the Belgica Mound province (Porcupine Seabight, North-East Atlantic) was studied in the framework of the Atlantic Coral Ecosystem Study (ACES; EC Fifth Framework Research Program). Attention was focused on the influence of and differences between different microhabitat types: dead coral fragments, glass sponge skeletons and the underlying sediment. This study demonstrates the importance of dead Lophelia pertusa framework and associated substrates for meiofauna along the European continental margins. The presence of these large biogenic structures on the seafloor of the continental margin (1) enables more taxa to be present and (2) particularly favours harpacticoid copepods, naupliar larvae and polychaetes. The meio-epifaunal community on these substrates significantly differs from the meio-infaunal community in the underlying sediment. This is mainly due to a much lower dominance of nematodes and a higher relative abundance of most other taxa, especially harpacticoids, naupliar larvae and polychaetes, in the latter habitat. This situation is comparable to that of epiphytic assemblages. Dominance of nematodes is low. The meio-infaunal assemblage in the underlying sediment is characterized by low densities. There are clear indications that cold-water coral degradation zones are biologically very diverse, in terms of species richness as well as equitability. Of all microhabitat types, coral fragments support the most diverse communities, whereas the underlying sediment is the least diverse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High densities of fishes in aggregations of deep-water corals (e.g., of the genera Primnoa, Paragorgia, Paramuricea) do not necessarily indicate that corals are important habitats in terms of population processes. Frequency dependent distribution models provide a basis for assessing the role of deep-water corals. It is necessary to understand the overall habitat-related distributions of fish species, at particular life history stages, in order to assess the particular role of corals. Examining the landscape for ecologically equivalent habitats is one approach for assessing the importance of coral habitats. Measures of the functional equivalence of habitats are demonstrated, as an example, for sites from the Gulf of Maine on the northeast United States continental shelf. Fish census data based on surveys with a remotely operated vehicle in 2003 showed that communities in habitats dominated by dense corals and dense epifauna were functionally equivalent when compared with five other less complex habitats (e.g., boulder with sparse coral cover). Comparison of species-individual curves showed that sites with dense coral and dense epifauna habitats supported only moderate levels of fish diversity when compared with other sites. Further, density of Acadian redfish (Sebastes fasciatus) in dense coral and dense epifauna habitats, where this species was dominant, was not statistically different but was higher than an outcrop-boulder habitat with sparse epifauna (the only other site where this species was abundant). Such data suggest that coral habitats are not necessarily unique but have attributes similar to other important habitats. However, the level of their importance in the demography of fish populations and communities remains to be demonstrated. Focusing conservation efforts for deep-water corals on their perceived value to exploited species, without good demographic information on fish populations, may ultimately leave corals open to destructive fishing practices if new and contrary information emerges. Conservation efforts for corals, in the absence of explicit ties to managed fish species, might do better emphasizing the intrinsic value of corals, their slow growth, high sensitivity to disturbance, and the questionable potential for recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colonial non-zooxanthellate corals from deep-water coral reefs, Lophelia pertusa and Madrepora oculata, produce large amounts of extracellular mucus (EMS). This mucus has various functions, e.g., an antifouling capability protecting the coral skeleton from attacks of endolithic and boring organisms. Both corals show thick epithecal and exothecal skeletal parts with a clear lamellar growth pattern. The formation of the epitheca is unclear. It is supposed that the EMS play a central role during the calcification process of the epithecal skeletal parts. Staining with the fluorochrome tetracycline has shown an enrichment of Ca2+ ions in the mucus. In order to investigate this hypothesis, the protein content of the mucus and the intracrystalline organic matter from newly formed epithecal aragonite of Madrepora oculata was determined via sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) gel electrophoresis. Identical band patterns within both substances could be detected, one around 45 kDa molecular weight and a cluster around 30–35 kDa molecular weight. The occurrence of identical protein patterns within the mucus and in the newly formed aragonite confirms the idea that the mucus plays an important role during the organomineralization of the coral epitheca. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of reefs are found along the coast of northern Norway, and a cluster of particularly high reefs off Troms County at 70°N are known collectively as the Fugløy Reef. The reefs, up to 40 m high and more than 200 m wide, consist mainly of the reef-building Lophelia pertusa. Most of the reefs identified in the study area are located on moraine ridges in water depths of 140–190 m, and in water masses dominated by the relatively warm and saline Norwegian Current. Several of the reefs are located on the flanks of channels incising the moraine highs, where currents are tidally dominated and periodically reach velocities of 30 cm/s. Gravity cores were acquired from the reefs and their surroundings, and thorough analyses of the sampled sediments provide valuable information about three (paleo-) sedimentary environments surrounding the reefs. The immediate vicinity of the reefs consists of coarse and unsorted deposits that are interpreted to be moraine material deposited by the retreating inland ice. Elevated current velocities have prevented fine sediments from settling since the ice retreated. The second province is a pockmarked basin at water depths down to ∼300 m. Gravity cores from the basin reveal silty sand deposits of more than 4 m thickness representing postglacial sedimentation in the area. Gas analyses reveal that the hydrocarbons found in the sediments clearly are of biogenic origin, although it is somewhat enigmatic whether biogenic gas is the sole driving force behind the pockmarks in the area. No direct link between the reefs and the pockmarks is found. The third sedimentary province is characterised by resedimentation of coral debris, clearly illustrated by sorted deposits and U/Th-datings from the allochthonous deposits. Remobilisation of coral debris is modest in areal extent, but an important mechanism linked to the occurrence of the coral reefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of the explorations carried out by the Colombian Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR) between 1998–2002 along the Colombian Caribbean continental shelf and upper slope, the occurrence of azooxanthellate coral banks was suspected at three sites (from the northern to southern Colombian Caribbean coast): off La Guajira Peninsula, at a water depth of 70 m; off Santa Marta, at 200 m, and nearby the San Bernardo Archipelago, at 150 m). Each site exhibited particular bottom features (relief and substrate), suggestive of reef structures. The analysis of the fauna collected by bottom trawling at these sites showed that many of the fishes, mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans, antipatharians, soft corals and bryozoans collected are characteristic dwellers of hard substrates or reef bottoms. At the first site (Guajira) the hard coral Cladocora debilis, was the most abundant; a total of 156 species of invertebrates and fishes were identified among the material collected at this site. At the second site (Santa Marta), 13 scleractinian species were collected, but Madracis myriaster, was the dominant species; another 102 species of invertebrates and fishes were also found. At the third site (San Bernardo) 19 scleractinian species were found, M. myriaster being the dominant. A total of 135 species of invertebrates and fishes were collected at this site. It is presumed that deep-sea coral banks have developed in these three settings, since many of the collected species are known to be hard or reef bottom dwellers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]