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Purpose: This paper provides global weights (weighting factors) for the three endpoint impact categories (areas of protection (AoPs)) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Life Cycle Initiative's "Global Guidance for Life Cycle Impact Assessment Indicators and Methods" (GLAM) project, namely human health, ecosystem quality, and natural resources and ecosystem services. Methods: A discrete choice experiment (DCE) was conducted to elicit the preferences of respondents on the GLAM AoPs, and they were then used to calculate the respective weights. Responses were obtained from a subset of countries pertaining to each income level defined by the World Bank (i.e. low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high). The adimensional (between 0 and 1) weights were derived using two different approaches: econometric and multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA). The econometric approach obtained weights by transforming the estimated preference parameters from a multinomial logit model. The MCDA approach obtained weights representing the vectors that best reconstitute the choices of each individual, using linear programming to fit an additive value function. Results: When considering responses from all income groups, the weights from the econometric approach are 0.42, 0.31, and 0.26 for human health, ecosystem quality, and natural resources and ecosystem services, respectively. Following the same order for the AoPs, the weights from the MCDA approach are 0.41, 0.32, and 0.27. For high-income countries, ecosystem quality has the highest weight; for upper-middle-income countries, ecosystem quality and human health have the same weights using the econometric approach, while in the MCDA approach, human health is weighted higher than ecosystem quality. For the two lower income country groups, the priority is given to human health with both approaches. Recommendations for the use of these weights are also provided, as well as a comparison with other existing weights. Conclusion: The two methods obtained similar weights overall, although with some differences when disaggregated by income groups. The weights proposed in this paper are suitable for decision-makers or users who want to use survey-derived weights for endpoint-based LCA when using the AoPs of GLAM. These weights can be used in projects where the decision-makers do not want to or have no resources to identify a set of weights themselves, or when decision-makers are not involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The pervasive use of plastics, coupled with inadequate waste management systems in many countries, has led to widespread leakage of plastics into the environment. In South Africa, the predominant type of shopping bags are single-use plastic bags; but paper, biodegradable plastic and re-usable bags have emerged as alternatives. To compare these alternatives in terms of environmental impacts across the whole product life cycle, we carried out a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of 16 shopping bag types available in South Africa. Methods: The comparison includes single-use plastic, bioplastic and paper bags, as well as re-usable bags (typically made from plastic in South Africa). The functional unit was based on the estimated annual volume of groceries purchased per capita. An attributional LCA was carried out using the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint(H) method, with 18 mid-point impact categories. In addition, given the lack of an impact category for plastic pollution in existing methods, we developed a mid-point indicator based on the persistence of plastics (and other materials) leaked to the environment (Persistence of leaked material, PersistenceLM). Specific attention was placed on modelling end-of-life and waste management in the South African context. Economic-based allocation at the point of substitution was used to apportion environmental impacts to virgin and recyclate material, and the production of recyclate was modelled using system expansion. Results and discussion: Re-usable bag types, specifically the 70 µm High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) and non-woven Polyester bags, had the lowest environmental impacts for all indicators, except PersistenceLM. Paper and biodegradable plastic bags had a lower PersistenceLM impact as compared to the petro-based plastic bags, and therefore may be preferable in terms of avoiding plastics accumulating in the environment. The re-usable bags need to be used at least 3 to 10 times to offer lower environmental impacts than single-use ones. Among the single-use bags, biodegradable bags made from imported Polybutylene Adipate Terepthalate (PBAT) plus starch showed the lowest environmental impacts across all impact categories, including PersistenceLM, followed by the Paper bag. The single-use 24 µm HDPE bag (HDPE_24) with no recycled content had the highest overall environmental impacts, while increasing the recycled content reduced overall environmental impacts by up to 52%. Compared to other countries, the high environmental impacts of plastic bags in South Africa can largely be attributed to the coal-to-liquids process used for polymer production, which is intensive in terms of both energy and raw materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aim of this research is to carry out a literature review on the use of life-cycle cost (LCC) approaches for hydrogen technologies, by analysing its evolution over a decade (2012–2021). Methods: The SCOPUS database has been used to select relevant literature on the subject. After adoption of inclusion/exclusion criteria, a total of 67 papers were selected for our review. Then, we analysed these studies in terms of hydrogen technologies (fuel cells, electrolysers, hydrogen storage approach, etc.) covered by the LCC approaches. In addition, we also performed an analysis of the LCC features — type of LCC (conventional, environmental, social), integration with LCA/S-LCA, guidelines followed, system boundaries (cradle-to-farm gate, cradle-to-consumer, cradle-to-grave, cradle-to-cradle), functional units, financial tools (NPV, BEP, etc.), type of costs included, and life span — to provide a comprehensive view of LCC studies applied to hydrogen technologies. We also discussed and interpreted the most significant findings. Results and discussion: Our main results can be summarised as follows: (i) the number of LCC studies for application to hydrogen technologies has increased in the decade 2012–2021; (ii) China is the leading country for number of publications on the subject (15 papers), even if the most prolific author and institution are Iranians; (iii) a large number of studies performed LCC analysis including fuel cells and/or electrolysers based on proton exchange membranes; (iv) the most widely used LCC approach is a cradle-to-consumer (37 papers); (vi) almost all the studies on LCC of hydrogen technologies included initial, operation and maintenance costs; while other costs — replacement, external, end-of-life — are included in a limited number of papers; (vii) the net present value (NPV) is the most used financial tool. Conclusions: LCC analysis for application to hydrogen technologies has gained interest in recent years. However, the number of studies that explicitly follow LCC or LCA guidelines is very limited (only 7). The life-cycle cost analyses performed are quite incomplete in terms of costs included in the life-cycle stages. Besides, there is a lack of information and uniformity in the use of functional units and financial tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: While social aspects are considered as part of Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA), the concept of Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) is relatively new in the construction sector, and more research is needed to comprehend its full potential and inform practice to deliver socially sustainable interventions. The paper aims to provide an account of current work in the field of S-LCA in the construction sector and presents an overview of the methodologies and frameworks that are currently used, with a focus on the critical analysis of impact categories applied to the construction sector. Methods: The paper adopts a systematic review of the literature with the objective to (a) provide a holistic and cross-disciplinary overview of the S-LCA methodologies and frameworks in the construction sector, (b) explore existing gaps, and (c) frame directions for future research. Results and discussion: Several gaps have been identified in relation to the S-LCA research landscape applied to the construction sector, which have, in turn, informed the formulation of recommendations for future research. Conclusions: The paper emphasises the importance and the need to intensify efforts to develop and reach consensus on the categories and criteria to deliver an S-LCA framework for Social Life Cycle Assessment of built environments. The framework, underpinned by a methodology, should involve an adaptable weighting system that considers the nature of the building as well as the type and profile of occupants. It should also factor in dynamic data to inform real-time adaptations to continuously deliver socially sustainable built environment interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The transition to a circular agri-food sector is a necessary condition for the sustainable development of the current production and consumption model. The complexity of the agri-food chain requires the introduction of a harmonized measurement system so that the circular economy can be applied. This study aims to define a life cycle-based dashboard to systematize and test cross-sectional life cycle-based (LCB) indicators to evaluate their applicability. Methods: The study is based on previous research to systematize cross-sectional LCB indicators, for the circular agri-food sector, classified according to the spatial dimensions (macro, meso, micro), areas of sustainability (economic, social, environmental), and scope within which the indicators are applied. The indicators were tested through a multiple compared analysis at the national and regional level, including a company case study (within the same region). Data were collected through two different methodologies based on the spatial dimension analysed. At the macro level, data were collected from databases and reports. At the micro level, a semi-structured interview with the owner of the company was conducted. For the analyses, data from different years were considered to compare results and to outline micro-trends. Result and discussion: The work made it possible to outline two types of results. The first derives from the application of the indicators to the spatial dimensions; the second expresses the potential application of the LCB-dashboard by the cross-sectional LCB indicators. The results of the work highlight the ability of cross-sectional indicators to provide a first comprehensive overview of the circularity of the agri-food sector concerning each level of observation. The study also allowed the applicability of LCB cross-sectional indicators to be tested. This suggests the need to introduce a harmonized detection system, between the national and regional accounting systems, obtaining consistent indicators that facilitate the comparison of results over time. Conclusions: The research showed the validity of the use of the cross-sectional LCB indicators, contributing to the discussion on CE indicators in the agri-food sector. The work supports the definition of new cross-sectional indicators and the new data collection model. For companies, the results encourage the development of monitoring models based on the LCB-dashboard. The paper has highlighted the limits and future steps of the measuring indicator system for the circularity of the agri-food sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The olive oil sector in Italy has a significant socio-economic, environmental, and cultural relevance. However, the environmental impacts of production and consumption models are considerable, mainly due to the demand for large quantities of resources (fuels, chemicals) and to the environmental impacts of residues' disposal. Due to the scarcity of resources and climate change concerns, circular economy principles based on industrial ecology concepts are emerging. In this paper, the principles of circular economy were specifically applied to the olive oil supply chain, to improve the environmental sustainability of the sector. Methods: The production chain of extra virgin olive oil was analyzed using the Life Cycle Assessment method, based on primary data from an oil farm and mill in Southern Italy. The environmental impacts were evaluated through the SimaPro software and the ReCiPe 2016 Mid-point (H) Impact Assessment Method, with reference to the functional unit of 1-L bottle of extra virgin olive oil. Some circular improvement options were investigated, comparing the impacts generated by (i) extra virgin olive oil linear production without valorization of by-products, (ii) extra virgin olive oil linear production with allocation of total impacts to co-products, and (iii) two circular production systems, incorporating improvements such as replacement of diesel with biodiesel and of electricity from the national grid with energy recovered from residues. Results and discussion: The environmental impacts of the business-as-usual production pattern were identified for possible improvements. In all phases of the production chain of organic extra virgin olive oil, the most affected impact categories were human carcinogenic toxicity, marine ecotoxicity, and terrestrial ecotoxicity. As expected, the major contributions to almost all the analyzed impact categories were determined by the agricultural phase (92.65%), followed by the bottling phase (7.13%) and the oil extraction phase (0.22%). The valorization of by-products was considered by widening the system boundaries to ensure the environmental sustainability by developing circular patterns that feedback waste materials to upstream steps of the same process. The environmental impacts resulted lower in almost all the impact categories, with the major benefits gained in the global warming and fossil depletion impact categories. Conclusions: The analysis proved that the reuse of pomace, prunings, and exhausted cooking oil initially considered as waste can bring benefits from an environmental point of view to the larger scale of the economy, by replacing fossil fuels, as well as to the olive oil chain itself, by providing the needed energy for production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to develop a scenario analysis on the experts' perceptions of benefits and barriers related to adopting digital technologies for the life cycle assessment (LCA) to catalyse a circular economy transition in the agri-food system. Methods: A literature review was performed to identify LCA's digital technologies that can be implemented within the agri-food system. Furthermore, an in-depth interview with a panel of senior researchers was conducted to establish a set of items and assess the perceived benefits and barriers associated with an "empowered LCA", i.e. a future-oriented LCA based on digital technologies. To this end, a two-stage exploratory factor analysis relying on the principal component analysis technique was carried out to refine the set of items. Finally, a covariance-based structural equation model was performed, built on a confirmatory factor analysis, to test the measurement model. Results and discussion: The study's findings provide five constructs to explore the potential benefits and barriers related to adopting a digital technologies-based LCA (empowered LCA) for a circular economy transition in the agri-food system. More specifically, the benefits can be assessed using the following constructs: "benefits for the data collection and analysis", "benefits for the LCA analysts", "benefits for the management" and "benefits for traceability". In addition, the barriers have been evaluated using a single construct labelled "general barriers". Conclusions: The study highlights the relevance of digital technologies for a circular economy transition to develop a more reliable LCA, enhancing legislative compliance and supporting the traceability processes in the agri-food system. The associated implications for LCA experts, agri-food managers and policymakers are presented. Furthermore, limitations and future research directions are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of using circularity indicators is to show the effect of changes from linear to more circular systems. This paper contributes to highlighting the importance of methodological aspects of circularity indicators in the agricultural sector when using a life cycle thinking approach. Selected circularity indicators have been explored and compared with LCA impact categories by using them to evaluate the circularity of a livestock system. Methods: Circularity indicators were tested on a theoretical pig production system where several circularity strategies and associated mitigation actions were applied. The strategies and mitigation actions were as follows: anaerobic digestion of manure (closing resource loops), anaerobic digestion of bread waste (closing resource loops), precision fertilization (narrowing resource loops), use of cover crops in feed production (regenerating resource flows), and use of bread waste as feed (slowing resource loops). The functional unit was 1 kg pork as carcass weight, and the treatment of 1.1 kg bread waste for all impact categories and indicators. For each mitigation action, relevant circularity indicators were tested. Based on this, the functionality and suitability of these indicators were discussed. Results and discussion: Four of the circularity indicators were based on nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P) substances: N recycling index, partial N balance, consumption of fossil-P fertilizers, and emissions to water bodies (P). Even if the indicators do not capture the impact of emissions of N and P as the eutrophication impact categories, they provide a useful indication of the circularity of a system. The other three circularity indicators tested were as follows: renewable energy production, soil organic carbon, and land use ratio. The renewable energy production indicator is easy to understand and communicate and provides unique information. Soil organic carbon presents a potential for soil carbon sequestration. Land use ratio is based on the same data as land occupation but provides an assessment of whether feed production competes for the suitable area for food production by including production of human-digestible protein. Conclusions: Circularity indicators provide valuable information about the circularity of an agricultural product system. The circularity indicators and LCA impact categories can be used either separately or together, or to complement each other. The choice of indicators depends on the questions raised, i.e., goals and scope, and it is therefore important to have a number of circular indicators to choose from in order to achieve a comprehensive assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: For the development of any life cycle assessment study, the practitioner frequently integrates primary data collected on-field, with background data taken from various life cycle inventory databases which are part of most commercial LCA software packages. However, such data is often not generally applicable to all product systems since, especially concerning the agri-food sector, available datasets may not be fully representative of the site specificity of the food product under examination. In this context, the present work investigates the background, sources and methodological aspects that characterise the most known commercial databases containing agri-food data, with a focus on four agri-food supply chains (olive oil, wine, wheat products and citrus fruit), which represent an important asset for the Italian food sector. Methods: Specifically, the paper entails a review of currently available LCI databases and their datasets with a twofold scope: firstly, to understand how agri-food data is modelled in these databases for a coherent and consistent representation of regional scenarios and to verify whether they are also suitable for the Italian context and, secondly, to identify and analyse useful and relevant methodological approaches implemented in the existing LCI databases when regional data are modelled. Results: Based on the aforementioned review, it is possible to highlight some problems which may arise when developing an LCI pertaining to the four Italian agri-food supply chains, namely: 1. The need for specific inventory datasets to tackle the specificities of agri-food product systems. 2. The lack of datasets, within the existing DBs, related to the Italian context and to the abovementioned supply chains. In fact, at present, in the currently available LCI DBs, there are very few (or in some cases none) datasets related to Italian wine, olive oil, wheat-based products and citrus fruit. The few available datasets often contain some data related to the Italian context but also approximate data with that of product systems representing other countries. Furthermore, the present study allowed to identify and discuss the main aspects to be used as starting elements for modelling regional data to be included in a future Italian LCI database of the abovementioned four supply chains. Conclusions: The results of the present study represent a starting point for the collection of data and its organisation, in order to develop an Italian LCI agri-food database with datasets which are representative of the regional specificities of four agri-food supply chains which play an important role in the Italian economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Winter heating in rural areas of northern China requires about 200 million tonnes of standard coal, of which coal is used as the main heat source, causing serious air pollution and exacerbating the greenhouse gas effect. Abundant "zero-carbon" straw in rural areas is a viable strategy for replacing coal-fired heating. The purpose of this paper is to compare the environmental and economic performance of straw heating scenarios. Methods: The environmental impacts and economic costs of four straw heating models across household, village, township, and county scales were compared through life cycle assessment and life cycle cost methods. In this study, the 24-h heat demand of 1 m2 (5.18 MJ) was used as a functional unit. Results: The results showed that the county scale straw cogeneration (CSC) model exhibits the best environmental performance. The global warming potential (GWP) and primary energy demand (PED) of the CSC model are only 11.17% and 10.82% of the household heating model. Straw heating is preferable at the township scale to the village scale from environmental aspects, and direct combustion heating is superior to gasification. For economic aspects, fuel costs are the highest as a percentage of total costs, and the CSC model has the lowest economic costs, with an LCC of 47% of the HSP model. Replacing 20% of coal with straw for heating can reduce annual emissions by 128 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent and the energy conservation and emission reduction impact by 0.17 (19.97%) in rural areas of China. Conclusions: Straw heating reduces the environmental impact as scale increases. At the same scale, straw direct combustion for heating has better environmental and economic performance than gasification. The county scale straw heating model has 89% lower carbon emissions than household scale, and has the best overall performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper presents a transparent and rigorous methodological approach to conducting a case study of social performance (SP) within the conventional life cycle of Canadian beef. The objective was to explore the potential benefits and risks (or hotspots) of practices on Canadian beef farm businesses (BFBs) and slaughter operations (BSOs) to establish valid benchmarks and a social sustainability roadmap for decision-makers to improve SP. Methods: This study undertook a novel and participatory approach to social life cycle assessment (S-LCA). Respondents from both within and at-arms-length to the beef value chain were engaged to identify SP practices and perceptions and develop the life cycle inventory. The goal and scope, inventory, assessment, and interpretation were conducted in a three-phased approach: (i) scoping; (ii) practice-based assessment; and (iii) deep-dive assessment. Data collected through mixed methods, including Q method, interviews, surveys, and literature review, were assessed using a type I (reference scale) approach and interpreted through critical interpretive synthesis. Organizational SP was explored at BFBs and BSOs, considering the following stakeholders: value chain actors, farmers, employees, and cattle. Results and discussion: Outcomes from the applied approach explore the interrelations between organizations and stakeholders along the value chain. Impact categories concerning labour management, people's health and safety, and animal care were prioritized for deep-dive assessment. Subcategories included novel topics, like recruitment and retention and access to mental health resources. A range of potential benefits and areas for improving SP were identified at BFBs and BSOs. Potential risks from SP were identified for stakeholders from working hours, communication and dispute resolution, animal transport, and personal protective equipment practice areas. Results informed strategic activities for the National Beef Sustainability Strategy. Conclusion: This study contributes to the social sustainability discourse in livestock systems by demonstrating a qualitative approach to S-LCA that can be replicated by practitioners to explore valid and locally specific social dimensions of sustainability. Practitioners may consider the approach and results in future studies to better capture and manage the complex and dynamic nature of livestock systems, leading to more effective social sustainability decisions that incorporate diverse stakeholder perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Solid-state batteries (SSBs) are a current research hotspot, as they are safer and have a higher energy density than state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). To date, their production only occurs on a laboratory scale, which provides a good opportunity to analyze the associated environmental impacts prior to industrialization. This paper investigates the environmental impacts of the production of cylindrical SSB, to identify environmental hotspots and optimization potentials. Methods: Here, an attributional cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) is performed, focusing on SSBs that use a NMC811/lithium germanium phosphorous sulfide (LiGPS) composite cathode, a sulfide-based solid separator electrolyte, and a lithium metal anode. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is performed in Umberto 11 using the Environmental Footprint 3.1 method with primary and literature data and the Evoinvent 3.9 database for background data. Results and discussion: The results show climate change impacts of 205.43 kg CO2 eq./kwh (for the base case), with hotspots primarily attributable to the electrolyte and cathode production, and more specifically to the LiPS and LiGPS synthesis as well as to the cathode active material. Additionally, the scenario analysis shows that an upscaling of the LiPS and LiGPS synthesis reduces environmental impacts across all assessed impact categories. In addition, it was shown that the use of an in situ anode further improves the overall environmental performance, while the use of alternative cathode active materials, such as NMC622 and LFP did not lead to any improvements, at least with reference to the storage capacity. Conclusion: The article highlights the environmental hotspots of sulfide-based SSB production, namely electrolyte and catholyte synthesis. The results show that upscaling the synthesis reduces the environmental impact and that cells with higher energy density show a favorable environmental performance. However, SSBs are still in the development stage and no final recommendation can be made at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper aims to report the current status of life cycle assessment (LCA) in Saudi Arabia. It summarizes the LCA studies conducted in academia and industry. It also examines LCA collaboration networks and training opportunities. It then points out current gaps in implementing LCA in Saudi Arabia. Finally, it delineates the steps required to promote LCA both as a research methodology and as a sustainability assessment tool in Saudi Arabia. Methods: Using Scopus database and the Internet, a state-of-the-art review was conducted for this paper. "LCA", "Life Cycle Assessment" and "Saudi Arabia" were the key words used for searching scientific studies, industrial reports, training courses and conferences related to application of LCA within Saudi Arabia. The search resulted in 32 scientific documents and one industrial report. Further scrutiny reduced the final sample considered for this paper to eleven scientific documents and one industrial report that used a complete LCA study to report environmental impacts. Results and discussion: Studies considered for this paper were related to fossil fuels, buildings, electricity generation, desalination, and food consumption. However, overall number of publications and industry reports related to LCA in Saudi Arabia is very little as compared to other advanced economies. This sheer lack of studies conducted in Saudi Arabia can be attributed to lack of educational programs, consultancies, and research projects related to LCA. This points to the vast potential for developing LCA both as a research tool and sustainability assessment tool in Saudi Arabia. There is a need to develop a local network of LCA researchers, a local LCI database, and training courses. Conclusions: This study revealed that use of LCA as a sustainability assessment tool is still in its early stages within Saudi Arabia. There are only a handful of LCA studies that are reported in scientific literature related to Saudi Arabia. Additionally, most of these studies relies on non-local databases rendering the results of these studies less reliable. There is an urgent need to promote LCA within Saudi Arabia and academia can play a leading role by offering short courses, training for industry, and participating in joint projects to conduct LCA studies. Furthermore, local LCA databases and consultancies should also be promoted. It is conjectured that in the future, the use of LCA will grow in Saudi Arabia as the county is targeting to become a net zero carbon economy by 2060. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper by Kiss and Szalay ([12]) titled I Sensitivity of buildings' carbon footprint to electricity decarbonization: a life cycle-based multi-objective optimization approach i examines how changes in electricity mix impacts GHG emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasizes the need to immediately tackle climate change by significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and capping global warming at 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels (IPCC, [8]). The study found that total GHG emissions from maize production were on average 429 ± 27 kg CO2-eq/ton grain, with the highest emissions occurring during the dry season. This SI further contributes to raising awareness to the topic of measuring GHG emissions, decarbonization measures as well as climate neutrality. [Extracted from the article]

Purpose: Existing life cycle assessment (LCA) methods for buildings often overlook the benefits of product recovery potential, whether for future reuse or repurposing. This oversight arises from the limited scope of such methods, which often ignore the complex interdependencies between building products. The present paper, backed by its supplementary Python library, introduces a method that addresses this gap, emphasizing the influence of product interdependencies and future recovery potential on environmental impact. Methods: Implementing the proposed method requires adding a phase, the recovery potential assessment, to the four phases that constitute an LCA according to the ISO 14040/14044 guidelines. Given the disassembly sequence for each product, in the first step of the recovery potential assessment, a disassembly network (DN) is created that displays structural and accessibility dependencies. By calculating the average of the disassembly potential (DP) of each structural dependency (second step) associated with that product, we obtain the DP (0.1–1) at the product level in a third step. Because there is no empirical data available to support a specific relationship between product disassembly potential and recovery potential (RP) (0–1), we employ, in a fourth step, a flexible model specification to represent scenarios of how this relationship may look like. Ultimately, for each scenario, the resulting RP is used to enable a probabilistic material flow analysis with a binary outcome, whether to be recovered or not. The resulting product-level median material flows are then used to quantify the building's environmental impact for a given impact category in the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The results are interpreted through an uncertainty, hotspot, and sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion: Our results show that not considering the interdependencies between building products in building LCAs results in underestimating the embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by up to 28.29%. This discrepancy is primarily attributed to a failure to account for additional material flows stemming from secondary replacements owing to the interdependencies during the life cycle. When accounting for end-of-life recovery benefits, a zero-energy building (ZEB) design incorporating some DfD principles demonstrated up to 45.94% lower embodied GHG emissions than the ZEB design with low disassembly potential when assuming that recovered products will be reused. Conclusions: Our approach provides first-of-a-kind evidence that not accounting for recovery potential may significantly distort the results of an LCA for buildings. The method and its supporting code support the semi-automated calculation of the otherwise neglected potential environmental impact, thus helping to drive the transition towards a more sustainable built environment. The supporting code allows researchers to build on the proposed framework if more data on the relationship between DP and RP become available in the future. Finally, while applied to buildings in this paper, the proposed framework is adaptable to any complex product with limited modifications in the supporting code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Most life cycle inventory (LCI) datasets include location-based electricity mixes. Using these LCI datasets in combination with market-based electricity accounting in life cycle assessments (LCAs) leads to double counting of electricity from specific sources, such as renewable energy. The goal of this paper is to analyze market-based accounting by replacing location-based electricity consumption with market-based residual mixes in all processes of the ecoinvent database. The python script for this replacement procedure is openly available. Materials and methods: We use the Brightway 2 software package to replace European location-based electricity consumption in all 21,238 processes of the ecoinvent database with residual electricity mixes on the corresponding voltage level. The ecoinvent database provides residual electricity mixes for all countries involved in European trade with market-based energy attribute certificates—Guarantees of Origin. We analyze the induced changes to the database both on an individual process level and on a database-wide level. The analysis focusses on the impact category climate change but is further extended to the impact categories terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, ozone depletion, and particulate matter formation. Results and discussion: For European processes, the implementation of the residual electricity mixes leads to average changes in the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results for climate change of 1%, 10%, 20%, and 50% for 2958, 733, 387, and 107 processes, respectively. Changes are especially pronounced for Norwegian and Icelandic processes due to the large differences among their location-based and residual electricity mixes. For the other analyzed impact categories, the changes in LCIA results are particularly high for freshwater eutrophication. With the push towards more primary data in LCA and GHG accounting, the impacts of using residual electricity mixes instead of location-based electricity mixes need further research on basis of quantified figures, which we present in this paper. Conclusion: This paper presents an approach towards enabling more consistent market-based accounting throughout LCAs and thereby contributes to the avoidance of double counting. Since only European residual mixes are considered, the database of this paper leads to distortion of LCA results. Further, research is needed to address double counting beyond the European electricity sector. This includes an expansion of this research to a global level and other industrial sectors. Furthermore, research is needed regarding industry-specific electricity sources in LCI datasets, which may also lead to double counting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In addition to its considerable economic benefits, mining generally has a significant environmental impact on the ecosystem and human health, despite the efforts made. Mali, the 13th gold producer in the world and 3rd in Africa, deserves very special attention. This paper aims to identify and assess the potential environmental impacts and environmental hotspots of gold mining in Mali, using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. Methods: An industrial gold mine located west of Bamako in the Kéniéba circle in Mali exploiting two main underground deposits was considered in this paper. SimaPro software (v.9.0.0) is used for LCA by applying the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint/Endpoint (H) V1.08 method to quantify the impacts generated. In addition, a sensitivity analysis of the scenarios proposed by Bjorklund is carried out to improve the reliability of the results obtained. Results and discussion: The results show that the main category of impact of gold mining that contributes most to the total environmental impact is human carcinogenic toxicity due to the production of electricity, the use of diesel, heavy fuel oil, hydrogen peroxide, sodium cyanide, aluminium chloride, and on-site emissions. In addition, the impacts of fossil resource depletion, terrestrial ecotoxicity, ozone formation in terrestrial ecosystems, mineral resource depletion, ozone formation in human health, terrestrial acidification, global warming, marine ecotoxicity, fine particle formation, and freshwater ecotoxicity also contribute considerably. Water consumption is identified as a positive impact of gold mining. Conclusion: Following the identification of environmental hotspots by this paper, further research is strongly recommended into the efficient production and rational consumption of energy and the choice of less energy-intensive, green technologies to promote more environmentally efficient gold mining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Digital closed-loop medication administration (CLMA) is a prime example of how digitalization in healthcare can reduce time and costs while simultaneously increasing patient safety. However, in contrast to its social and economic benefits, associated environmental impacts have never been investigated. Since the required amount of packaging material is seen as a major subject of criticism, we assess associated environmental burdens using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology to identify hotspots and provide adaptation recommendations. Methods: Digital, as well as conventional paper-based medication management (PBMM), involve two types of packaging: pharmaceutical packaging (blisters or bottles), containing purchased medication, and clinical packaging (unit doses or medical dispensers) for medication dispensation. Therefore, a cradle-to-grave life cycle model was established comparing impacts at pharmaceutical packaging level, clinical packaging level, and a combined level. While PBMM requires small, blistered boxes, CLMA requires large, bottled packages. Therefore, the functional unit allows to compare different box sizes but inhibits comparing medication from different manufacturers. Primary data is obtained from University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf which practices state-of-the-art CLMA. PBMM data is obtained in three dispenser scenarios, varying the reusability of medical dispensers. The life cycle impact assessment was performed for five impact categories using CML 2001(2016) method. Results and discussion: All compared blistered pharmaceutical packaging options yield higher impacts than their bottled counterparts. Cardboard and package inserts result in up to 40 times higher impacts for blisters than for bottles, which, however, is attributed to the methodology of comparing different box sizes. Yet, this does not influence the required amount of blister laminate. All blister materials were found to result in higher environmental burdens, peaking in nearly 240 times higher ozone depletion impacts for polyvinylchloride/polychlorotrifluoroethylene blisters. In terms of clinical packaging, two of three dispenser scenarios result in higher environmental burdens than the respective unit dose scenario. Only if reused, 7.2 times this trend is reversed. When combining selected impacts from both pharmaceutical and clinical impacts, all three dispenser scenarios perform worse than the unit dose scenario. Conclusions: Packaging impacts are lowest if unit dose dispensation is combined with bottled pharmaceutical packaging. Given a specific pharmaceutical packaging, dispensation via medical dispensers may perform better, if they are comprehensively reused. With this study, the authors disproved that packaging impacts are generally higher for CLMA than for PBMM. However, both systems certainly comprise other processes and materials like consumed paper or energy to run required digital infrastructure, which should be subject to future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper addresses the lack of ecotoxicity characterization factors (CFs) for persistent and mobile (PM) chemicals in life cycle assessment. The specific aims are (1) to provide CFs for 64 selected chemicals and benchmark them against the USEtox database, (2) to propose an ecotoxicity data harmonization strategy, and (3) to analyze the influence of ecotoxicity data sources and data harmonization strategies. Methods: Sixty-four per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), triazines, and triazoles were selected. An ecotoxicity data harmonization strategy was developed to ensure data consistency. A screening strategy for including transformation products was also developed. Existing CFs in the USEtox organic substances database (version 2.01) were identified, and new CFs were calculated based on available data sources. The USEtox model (version 2.13) was used for calculations, and the collected ecotoxicity data from different sources were varied to test their influence. Results and discussion: The ecotoxicity data harmonization strategy excluded a considerable amount of incompatible data. To the list of 64 chemicals, 3 transformation products were added. Out of the 67 chemicals, experimental ecotoxicity data were available for 47, leading to the use of in silico tools and average values to fill data gaps for 20 chemicals. CFs for 67 chemicals could thus be provided. Comparing CFs calculated based on experimental and estimated ecotoxicity data reveals that the estimated data leads to considerably different CF values. Conclusions: The paper provides strategies for ecotoxicity data harmonization and the inclusion of transformation products. The limited availability of experimental ecotoxicity data and differing results of the applied estimation methods highlight the need for further development of estimation methods. In addition, further development in including transformation products is recommended, which is particularly relevant for PM chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Unlike ordinary products, festival food gifts like mooncakes in China are prone to excessive packaging, using various materials and complicated decorations, which increases the resource and environmental burdens of consumption. This study evaluated the environmental impacts of different mooncake packaging options, including metal, wood, and paper-based packaging. Methods: This study sampled 64 mooncake packaging types (with low, medium, and high prices) in the Chinese market and employed life cycle assessment modeling to quantify and analyze the environmental impacts of different mooncake packaging types. Based on these results, this study identified environmental-friendly options and shed light on directions to alleviate unnecessary environmental impacts associated with the packaging of massive seasonal festival food. Results and discussion: The weight of packing materials associated with 1 kg of mooncake product ranged from 0.5 to 2.5 kg (with a mean value of 1.2 kg), resulting in average greenhouse gas emissions of 2 kg of CO2-eq, or approximately 67 times the value of ordinary food packing (0.03 kg of CO2-eq). Among the three packaging types, metal-based packaging had the highest environmental impacts, followed by wood and paper-based packaging. The outer packaging was the dominant contributor to the environmental impacts of metal-based packaging, while the impacts of wood and paper-based packaging were primarily derived from the middle packaging materials, which mainly consisted of individual packaging boxes and fixed pallets. Higher-priced mooncakes had heavier packaging weight and greater environmental impacts, suggesting that they bear more environmental responsibility. Conclusion: Excessive and extravagant packaging was responsible for the increasing environmental burden associated with mooncakes. For both mooncake producers and consumers, turning back to the essence of the festival itself will be crucial for mitigating the environmental impacts of packaging. This study is an initial attempt to quantify the environmental impacts of traditional festival food packaging, and the study results facilitate evidence-based policymaking to transition the festival commodity packaging sector in a more sustainable direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aims of this scoping review were to examine the extent to which food packaging life cycle assessment studies included food waste specifically attributed to food packaging, overall and by food category; synthesise outcomes in terms of the ability of packaging solutions to minimise food waste; and identify areas of future research to provide a comprehensive understanding of where future packaging LCA efforts could be directed. Methods: This article presents a scoping review of 23 peer-reviewed papers on food packaging LCAs that explicitly accounted for packaging-related food waste. The articles were analysed by the major food product categories examined in the LCAs. The review examined the: (i) distribution of LCAs across food product categories, (ii) packaging materials/solutions assessed, (iii) food waste related packaging functions evaluated, and (iv) additional factors that influence packaging-related food waste (e.g., consumer behaviour). Results and discussion: Most of the reviewed LCAs focused on food categories associated with high environmental impacts such as animal-based products (meat and dairy) and highly perishable products (fresh fruits and vegetables). Plastic was the most frequently evaluated packaging material. Shelf-life extension was the most evaluated food waste related packaging attribute, and was found to play an important role in preventing food waste, especially within high impact food categories. Conclusions: The small number of studies identified in this review highlights a need for greater attention to food waste across more food categories in future food packaging LCAs. Similarly, there is considerable potential for greater consideration of packaging attributes relevant to different food product categories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The textile industry faces major challenges in reducing environmental impacts along the whole value chain. The overall aim of this paper was to assess the potential environmental benefit of a circular textile value chain, by evaluating a garment partly made from a chemically recycled cellulose carbamate fibre. The cellulose carbamate technology is a novel technology that turns cotton-rich textile waste into a cotton-like regenerated fibre. Methods: Life cycle assessment was performed to evaluate the environmental impacts of a garment made from the chemically recycled fibre, considering the whole life cycle. The evaluation also considered that the garment was part of a take-back system, meaning that the garment is collected for recycling after consumer use and thereby helps in closing the loop of the circular textile value chain. The focus of the assessment was on climate impact, water scarcity impact and land use impact. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses were included to test parts of the European Commission's product environmental footprint method, e.g. the impact of applying the circular footprint formula. Results and discussion: The results showed that (1) using a recycled cellulose carbamate fibre over primary conventional cotton showed benefits in all considered environmental impact categories; (2) compared to organic cotton, the benefits were also shown for the land use impact category; (3) the cradle to gate processes were the main hotspots for the garment's life cycle, meaning that using a recycled feedstock is not the only measure needed to reduce environmental burdens; (4) the use phase, and in particular using the garment to its full life length, is crucial for mitigating the environmental impact per garment use; and (5) methodological choices related to the use of recycled feedstock, and sending materials to recycling at end-of-life, affect the outcome of the study. Conclusions: Selecting a chemically recycled cellulose carbamate fibre over primary fibres showed environmental benefits for the evaluated garment, but there are however trade-offs between different environmental impact categories and fibre types. Furthermore, using recycled fibres is one important step in reducing the environmental concerns of garments, but it is important to also make improvements along the whole textile value chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Unplanned events such as accidents and more massive black-swan events are contingent to modern technology. However, varying approaches and inconsistent guidelines make the inclusion of unplanned events in life cycle assessment (LCA) uncommon and challenging. This paper discusses the relevance of considering unplanned events in LCA and shows how they can be included in LCA practice. Method: A theoretical background to the concepts of black swans, accidents, and unplanned events is first provided. We then propose a method for how unplanned events can be included in LCA practice, illustrated through three cases: (i) a sabotage in the energy system, (ii) an accident in the use phase, and (iii) a sudden policy change. Results: The results show that unplanned events can be included and may significantly affect LCA results, sometimes even fulfilling criteria for black-swan events. Conclusions: We suggest that unplanned events should be included in LCA when relevant, e.g. as one scenario in LCAs of product systems sensitive to accidents. We also suggest that changes in flows due to unplanned events should be considered in unit processes, so that their impacts become distributed across downstream product systems depending on demand for the unit-process output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Laundry is a frequent household activity, performed either manually or by washing machine. This process consumes chemical products (such as laundry detergent and fabric softener), electricity, and water. It is therefore important to understand the environmental impacts and costs associated with laundry. The goal of this paper was to assess its eco-efficiency based on the NBR ISO 14045:2014 standard. Methods: Primary data were collected from laundry detergent and fabric softener producers in Teresina, Piauí, Brazil. Secondary data were collected from patents, a chemical industry association, the government labeling program, and municipal water and electricity suppliers. The product system boundaries were cradle-to-consumer, and the impact categories were global warming, freshwater eutrophication, and land use. The product system value indicator was the washing costs from the consumer's perspective. The environmental and product system value indicators were related using the eco-efficiency formula which resulted in the process eco-efficiency profile. An uncertainty analysis was carried out to measure errors intrinsic to the data and the methods. A sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the influence of choices made during the study and to propose viable technical improvements. Results: The results showed that the most impactful processes in the three categories were electricity, wastewater treatment, and the chemical products (laundry detergent and fabric softener). In terms of product system value, the costs of water and sewage treatment had the highest contribution to the overall costs. It was not possible to identify the laundry eco-efficiency profile degree and to calculate the X factor, due to the lack of studies in this area. Greater uncertainties were found in the global warming category, due to its global scope, while freshwater eutrophication category has country-specific characterization factors. A new scenario was proposed to identify possible economically and environmentally feasible changes. However, it did not generate significant changes that would improve the eco-efficiency profile of the evaluated process. Conclusions: This work highlights the eco-efficiency importance as an environmental management tool to support business decision-making and to identify the environmental impacts of domestic activities. By the results, washers and laundry products manufacturers know which areas they should invest in research and development to reduce their products' impacts. For future studies, it is recommended to evaluate the use of a detergent that does not require fabric softener, such as those sold by the brands Biozgreen, TerpenOil, and Yvy in the Brazilian market, and a high-efficiency washer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The production and construction of buildings cause significant environmental impacts besides those arising from their operation. Recently, some European countries have started introducing life cycle assessment as a mandatory calculation method for new buildings, and it is foreseen that by 2030 this will be done in every member state, at first without any legal minimum values. Methods: Extensive databases on the embodied impacts of buildings, which would be needed to support setting the baseline impacts, are still missing. This paper proposes an approach for determining bottom-up reference values. A large building sample is generated describing "technically feasible" new buildings. Instead of analysing a few typical buildings, the main parameters describing a building are determined and the ranges are defined that these parameters typically take. With the variation of these parameters, a large building sample is generated, and the surfaces and built-in material quantities are determined for typical construction solutions to assess environmental performance. Results and discussion: The method is demonstrated by calculating the reference embodied benchmark values for new residential buildings in Hungary. The results show a baseline embodied Global Warming Potential of 9.5–15.5 kg CO2-eq/m2/yr for single-family houses and 9.1–14.3 kg CO2-eq/m2/yr for multi-family houses. Conclusions: This method is suitable for estimating the environmental impact of typical new buildings in countries where a large pool of real building data is not yet available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The current food production and consumption patterns are highly relevant for the exceedance of the planetary boundaries. Also in Germany food consumption is responsible for high environmental impacts as several studies already showed. However, not all relevant impact categories have yet been quantified for German food consumption, and also the reduction potential due to changes in dietary patterns is not fully assessed. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyse the environmental impacts of German food consumption with respect to impacts on climate change, biodiversity and water, and to build three scenarios for a German planetary health diet in order to identify reduction potentials. Methods: The analysis has been conducted using life cycle assessment (LCA) according to ISO 14040 series. The modelling is based on the average German food basket at consumption level and the functional unit chosen is the food consumption for 1 year for all German citizens—the German food basket. The environmental impacts assessed within this study are greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption and water scarcity, as well as land use and related impacts on terrestrial biodiversity. Furthermore, based on the current diet ('status quo'), three scenarios for Germany were created following the recommendations for a planetary health diet for a flexitarian, a vegetarian and a vegan diet. The scenarios were kept as close as possible to the current diet in Germany, framed by a set of rules. Results and discussion: The results show, that today, each person in Germany consumes on average about 2650 kcal per person and day and thus 6% more than recommended in food-based dietary guidelines developed in the planetary health diet and about 25% more than recommended in the German guidelines. This finding correlates with the fact that over 50% of German inhabitants are overweight and almost a fifth (18.5%) is obese. Regarding the global environmental impacts caused by German food consumption, 216,000 kt CO2e are emitted (of which 46,000 kt CO2e result from dLUC), 166,000 km2 of land is occupied each year, resulting in a biodiversity impact of 12,300 BVI*km2*a and 2.401 km3 of irrigation water is consumed, which causes a water scarcity footprint of 118.6 km3worldeq. The results confirm findings of previous studies regarding climate impacts, direct land use change and occupation, and add new findings regarding water scarcity and biodiversity impacts. Furthermore, results show reduction potentials due to changes in dietary patterns. It is interesting to note that all assessed environmental impacts, including biodiversity impacts, are highly dependent on the share of animal foods in the diet, with the exception of water consumption and water footprint. It is mainly caused by plant-based foods and strongly influenced by the origin of the plant-based products, but also by the water demand of the crop itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: It is challenging for practitioners to navigate through the multitude of life cycle assessment (LCA) approaches due to the rich literature and a lack of systematisation. The LCA flexibility allowed by standards results in a multitude of applications and, as referred to in previous works, as an "alphabet soup". This paper proposes a scheme for a clearer classification of currently used LCA approaches, with consideration of the 4-stage framework coming from standards. Methods: This systematisation was first established through literature research serving as a preliminary tentative framework. A text mining task was carried out in a second stage, involving 2044 published articles among 7558 of the last 10 years. For text mining, a dictionary collected keywords and synonyms of the LCA approaches. Such keywords were then extracted from the text together with their context (multiword). The final multiword analysis allowed the association of each keyword (i.e. each LCA approach) with a specific LCA stage (Goal and Scope, Life Cycle Inventory, Life Cycle Impact Assessment, Interpretation). The preliminary framework was adapted, further enriched and validated based on the text mining results. Results: As a result of the text mining activities, the preliminary tentative framework was partially confirmed and enriched with new insights, especially in the field of "explorative" LCA approaches, which also include "prospective" and "scenario-based" LCA. For most of the currently used LCA approaches, a link to a unique LCA stage was not recorded. However, clear trends were detected. The text mining task also highlighted a high number of works in which different approaches are compared or counterposed, especially in the field of attributional and consequential LCA. Some issues were found with the connotations of "traditional" approaches, which could be defined more specifically as "non-explorative". Conclusions: Unlike other works focused on notions from selected literature, text mining activities can provide bottom-up feedback on a larger scale more automatically. In addition, this work brought out novel LCA approaches, for which future developments will confirm a final definition and systematisation. As an additional advantage, the presented methodology is easily replicable. Hence, the presented framework can be updated along with developments in LCA approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This summary discusses the importance of transitioning from a linear economy to a circular economy in the agri-food sector. The document emphasizes the challenges and opportunities of implementing circular economy strategies in this sector, as well as the significance of life cycle thinking and assessment methods. It introduces a special issue of The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment that focuses on assessing circular economy strategies in the agri-food sector using life cycle assessment methods. The special issue includes 10 papers that cover methodological advancements, case studies, and literature reviews. The studies primarily focus on the environmental performance of circular strategies, with limited attention given to economic and social impacts. There is a need for more comprehensive assessments that consider all dimensions of sustainability and explore the interconnections between life cycle sustainability assessment and circularity assessment. [Extracted from the article]

Purpose: A recent update to the Product Category Rules (PCRs) for Construction Products (of the International EPD System) has triggered a methodological issue for owners and users of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs). The updated PCR has led to capital goods data being implicitly included in the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of EPDs. This paper critically examines the role of capital goods in EPDs and establishes major shortcomings in the current methodology, LCI datasets and interpretation. Methods: To evaluate the role of capital goods in EPDs, this paper provides a discourse on the fundamentals of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology, scope, available LCI data and the impact of capital goods on EPD outcomes. Using the ecoinvent database, we analyse the impact of the inclusion and exclusion of capital goods in selected 38 construction products based on the EN 15804+A2 (2019) Standard. Finally, we estimate the relative contribution of capital goods to a suite of Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) indicators based on the archetypes of capital goods available in ecoinvent and apply Monte Carlo simulation to establish the range of uncertainties in the capital goods data for the selected construction products. Results and discussion: Our research confirms that when capital goods are included based on currently available background LCI data, they mostly have a low effect (<10% increase) on climate change, but they can have an enormous effect (>100% increase) on abiotic depletion (minerals and metals), land use and/or human toxicity indicators. Interestingly, when looking further into the ecoinvent capital goods LCI datasets, it becomes clear that there are inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and possibly incorrect estimates of capital goods and infrastructure data. These findings raise questions about the suitability of the underlying LCI background data and whether non-attributable capital goods should be allowed to define EPD outcomes. Conclusion: The requirement for the inclusion of capital goods leads to a major conundrum for LCA practitioners. It is suggested that capital goods be excluded until there is better refinement and improvement of the quality of LCI datasets and EPD programs provide clearer guidance on dealing with capital goods. Alternatively, EPDs could document transparently the inclusion or exclusion of capital goods, so that there is a clear separation of the effects of capital goods on LCIA indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Abiotic resource is included as an impact category in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The most widely accepted LCIA method is abiotic resource depletion potential (ADP). However, numerous studies have illustrated the limitations of the ADP method, such as the neglect of resources that can be recycled. This paper aims to develop a comprehensive and objective method for assessing the impact of resource use on future generations, which can be used at different stages of the life cycle. Methods: Based on the above research objectives, this paper proposes a new method, the abiotic resource expected dissipation potential (AEDP) method, for assessing the impacts of current resource use on the abiotic resource accessibility. The method is divided into four impact categories based on different endpoints of the dissipative flow and replaces the resource extraction rate with the global annual dissipation rate and adds anthropogenic stocks to the total reserves, resulting in the characterization factor AEDPs. Finally, the four impact categories are weighted to obtain a final impact score for resource use. Results: Results of the new method are presented as a multi-dimensional reflection of natural reserves, dissipation rates, and extraction rates of resources. The comparison between AEDPs and ADPs revealed differences between them, but they were not significant. A higher power of the total reserves in the AEDP formula can overemphasize the effect of natural reserves on the characterization factor. Furthermore, other natural reserve data was used as alternative indicators in the sensitivity analysis. Conclusion: The new assessment method enables the future impacts of abiotic resource use to be more accurately assessed. It can be used at any life cycle stage to support relevant stakeholder decision-making. However, a broader database is required to be developed to calculate more characterization factors. Moreover, the over-dominance of reserve data in the characterization factors overshadows the influence of other dimensions. Consequently, further research is necessary to improve the operability and plausibility of this method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper explores a life cycle assessment (LCA) case study of two char carbon reductants for silicon alloys production, manufactured from Polish and Colombian hard coal. Life cycle assessment (LCA) of chars has not been thoroughly analysed and described in the scientific literature and the studies on high silicon alloys tend to focus solely on climate change with smaller consideration of other important environmental issues. Methods: This cradle-to-gate LCA of chars uses 1 tonne of final product as a functional unit. The method chosen for the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is Environmental Footprint 3.0 (EF 3.0) and five impact categories from the method were chosen for presenting environmental impacts (climate change, particulate matter, freshwater eutrophication, freshwater ecotoxicity, and fossil resource use), with remaining available in supplementary materials. Results and discussion: While the carbon footprint for char produced from Polish coal is 13% higher than for char derived from Colombian and amounts, respectively, to 1554.4 and 1373.3 kg CO2 eq, the freshwater ecotoxicity for char from Colombian coal achieving 113,956 CTUe outperforms the result of 11,749 CTUe measured for Polish char. When applying weighting aggregated into single score results, Polish and Colombian char obtained, respectively, 109.4 mPt and 160.1 mPt. Activities relating to the manufacturing stage had the largest impact on climate change and particulate matter due to the coal devolatilisation process but mining operations were most damaging to freshwater eutrophication, ecotoxicity, and fossil resource use. The paper also investigates and presents potential optimisation opportunities in the area of char production. Conclusions and recommendations: A comparative life cycle assessment of two chars fills the research gap in the literature. Results for selected impact categories of EF 3.0 method for both Polish and Colombian chars show variability of environmental loads, but clearly suggest that the greatest environmental burdens concern the coal extraction process. Most scientific literature on the metallurgy industry focuses on carbon footprint as the most important impact. While the carbon footprint of Polish char is slightly higher than that of its Colombian counterpart, other environmental impact categories can exhibit opposite trends. This is especially significant in the freshwater ecotoxicity category, which is ten times higher for Colombian char and can be attributed to the open-cast mining process. Therefore, it is important to analyse chars in terms of alternative technological solutions aimed at maintaining optimal usability in all life cycle stages, taking into account a holistic view to possibilities of reducing environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: National LCA networks have been supporting the mainstreaming of LCA practice in around a hundred countries. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the factors which contribute to the continuity and relevance of LCA networks as LCA practice becomes more mainstream. This paper addresses the following research questions: what factors enabled the establishment of LCA networks and how is their relevance maintained? How do LCA networks maintain operational continuity? In-depth interviews with national LCA networks were conducted and thematically analyzed. The results analyze the factors contributing to the establishment of LCA networks, as well as offering a unique insight into the factors affecting their relevance over time and contributing to maintaining their operational continuity. While previously LCA networks focused mainly on raising awareness of life cycle approaches, now, they are moving towards providing a coordinated influence on policies and stakeholders. LCA is no longer only an academic method; it has become mainstreamed in business sectors. By offering diverse activities and networking possibilities, LCA networks remain attractive for their members who are willing to pay a membership fee, which secures their long-term viability. The driving force for starting LCA networks was individual experts with an interest in the topic. The formal establishment of the networks allowed greater budgetary resources and, thus, the ability to carry out a broader set of activities that are relevant for different groups of stakeholders. The role of LCA networks both as a learning platform as well as an influential interface between different organizations makes them relevant over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The ability of biorefineries to simultaneously produce energy and materials from biomass is a key factor in their role as a fundamental solution for enabling the circular economy. Research in this field is primarily focused on measuring and improving the sustainability of biorefineries. Nevertheless, the evaluation of biorefineries' sustainability faces a significant challenge due to their emergent nature. This challenge stems from inadequate data availability or the presence of data that is fraught with uncertainties and risks, which hampers the assessment process. Consequently, it becomes imperative to undertake comprehensive and extensive analyses of risks and uncertainties to tackle this issue effectively. In addition to this, data simulation also requires subsequent manual steps to transfer these data into assessment software. All these requirements for a comprehensive sustainability assessment combined can accumulate into a resource-demanding, time-consuming, and energy-intensive task. Furthermore, most studies neglect the trade-off between different sustainability aspects and fully comprehend the relative relevance of input elements impacting sustainability. The aforementioned issues reduce the accuracy of biorefinery sustainability assessments. Research methodology: To overcome these challenges, an automated open-access python-based integrated modular platform, named SAB (Sustainability Assessment of Biorefineries), was developed to perform the environmental and economic assessment of biorefineries. SAB extracts the data required for building the life cycle inventory from the ASPEN model. It performs life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) while taking the input parameters' uncertainty into account. It also determines the impact of input parameters on LCA and LCC results by carrying out a Global Sensitivity Analysis. In addition, SAB evaluates the sustainability performance of a variety of scenarios based on a trade-off decision-making algorithm to determine the scenario with the least environmental and economic risk. To illustrate the capability of SAB, three case studies for lignocellulose-based biorefinery are presented in this paper. Results and conclusion: Overall, the SAB tool enables the evaluation of LCA and LCC of biorefineries transparently in an automated manner. It can be employed as a decision-making tool that gives information about the environmental and economic risks of multiple scenarios. SAB also supports the development of a more sustainable biorefinery concept by giving information about the effects of different variables on LCA and LCC results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Potentially contradictory indicators in Life Cycle Assessment cause ambiguity and thus uncertainty regarding the interpretation of results. The weighting-based ecological scarcity method (ESM) aims at reducing interpretation uncertainty by applying policy-based normative target values. However, the definition of these target values is uncertain due to different reasons such as questionable temporal representativeness. By means of an uncertainty analysis, this paper examines if ESMs are an appropriate approach to support robust decisions on multidimensional environmental impacts. Methods: To assess the effect of uncertain target values (inputs) on environmental indicators (output), the ESM based Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is combined with a Monte Carlo Analysis. The comprehensive uncertainty analysis includes the following steps: (1) sample generation, (2) output calculation and (3) results analysis and visualisation. (1) To generate a sample, moderate and strict limits for target values are derived from laws, directives or strategies. Random input parameters are drawn from a uniform distribution within those limits. (2) The sample is used to conduct several LCIAs leading to a distribution of total impact scores. (3) The results' robustness is evaluated by means of the rank acceptability index to identify stable ranks for energy generation systems taken from ecoinvent v. 3.7.1. Results and discussion: Applying moderate and strict target values in the ESM, results in substantial differences in the weighting sets. Even though the application of stricter target values changes the contribution of an environmental indicator to the total impact score the ranking of the energy generation systems varies only slightly. Moreover, the Monte Carlo Analysis reveals that displacement effects in ranks are not arbitrary: systems switch at most between ranks next to each other and most of the analysed systems dominate at least a single rank. Technologies with high shares of land use, global warming and air pollutants and particulate matter show a higher rank variance. Conclusions: The weighting schemes, deduced from target values, provide a meaningful ranking of alternatives. At the same time, the results are not excessively sensitive to the uncertainties of the target values, i.e. the inherent uncertainty of the target values does not result in arbitrary outcomes, which is necessary to support robust decisions. The ESM is able to effectively facilitate decision making by making different environmental issues comparable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Some future-oriented life cycle assessment (LCA) terms, particularly prospective and ex-ante, show notable increase in use in publications over the last decade. However, scholars have pointed out that it is currently unclear exactly what these terms mean and how they are related. This paper aims to explain defining differences between future-oriented LCA terms and provide terminology recommendations. Methods: Existing definitions of future-oriented LCA terms were reviewed and analyzed. Workshops were held where defining differences of future-oriented LCA terms were discussed. Results: Temporal positionality and technology maturity appear to be two critical aspects of future-oriented LCA. Prospective and ex-ante LCA are similar, with the possible difference that ex-ante LCA always involves an increase in technology maturity in the future. Considering the notable similarities, it seems reasonable to converge terms to mitigate field fragmentation and avoid terminology confusion. Conclusions: To denote LCA studies with a future temporal positionality, we recommend using the term prospective LCA, defined as "LCA that models the product system at a future point in time relative to the time at which the study is conducted". Furthermore, since technology maturity is clearly a critical aspect for prospective LCA, we recommend prospective LCA studies to clearly define the maturity of the technologies modeled in the production system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: As LCA is widely applied for benchmarking and decision-making, the need to clarify the ambiguity within fundamental methodological issues is imperative. Nutrient substitution, a subcategory of substitution, where credits are given for secondary fertilizer, is one of the common means to solve multi-functionality in LCA studies. This review aims to unravel the unique challenges associated with nutrient substitution, given the increasing relevance attributed to this topic. Methods: A systematic review of LCA studies available in Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) has been conducted. Studies about the recovery of nutrients from waste streams to produce fertilizer were scrutinized. As this review focuses on nutrient substitution methodology, only studies applying substitution for secondary fertilizer were included. PRISMA checklist has been used for reporting and completeness check of the review. Results are demonstrated from system modeling and explicit substitution procedure perspectives, supplemented by an investigation on sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion: As a general caveat, poor documentation and low transparency have been observed. Substitution has been used to model attributional (ALCA) and consequential LCA (CLCA) systems. The choice of functional unit combined with nutrient substitution in ALCA could attribute impacts to other functions than those studied. The determination of system boundary, especially the incorporation of the Use on Land (UoL) stage and avoided UoL emissions, is not always in accordance with the selected system modeling. Furthermore, there is no consensus on calculating the nutrient substitution rate. Single and aggregated factors comprising internal product quality, external-environmental, and external-societal variables have been identified. A prevalent observation among most studies is the absence of a sensitivity analysis pertaining to the nutrient substitution rate. Conclusion: The consistency of nutrient substitution cannot be achieved without an unambiguous definition and connotation of substitution and system modeling. The exclusion of the UoL phase not only limits the scope of a study but also fails to reflect quality differences between primary and secondary products. The key lies in elevating awareness regarding the intricacies of nutrient substitution, which consequently necessitates a rigorous definition and integration of influential factors when calculating substitutability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Climate change, environmental concerns, and economic problems pose challenges to the construction sector in Iran, which must provide affordable solutions while addressing environmental issues. Hence, natural earthen building materials are critically needed to reduce energy-intensive and costly construction practices dramatically. The purpose of this paper is to provide a framework for comparing life cycle assessments (LCA) and life cycle costs (LCC), for load-bearing walls of an single-family affordable housing unit in a desert part of Iran, Ardakan City. Methods: To do so, both LCA and LCC for the unit were performed, considering a cradle-to-site perspective. For this purpose, 22 load bearing wall systems are assessed, including 18 stabilized and unstabilized earthen construction techniques, such as adobe, rammed earth (RE), and compressed earth block (CEB), in addition to four conventional wall assemblies of fired brick (FB), autoclaved aerated concrete block (AAC), ceramic block (CB), and concrete masonry unit (CMU). As well as assessing the environmental impact and life cycle costs associated with the life cycle of each wall, the optimal assembly of the wall is also examined. Results: Results show that unstabilized earthen walling alternatives have significantly lower environmental impacts than conventional materials. Conclusions: Sensitivity analysis indicates that by utilizing local materials to the maximum extent possible, impacts can be further minimized. Considering the results, transportation may even account for a greater proportion of EI than wall components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Agricultural production, which dominates the environmental impacts of the food sector, has specific characteristics that need to be considered in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. Agricultural systems are open, difficult to manage and control, strongly depend on natural resources and their impacts are highly variable and influenced by soil, climate and farm management. A specific framework, efficient methods and tools are thus needed to adequately assess the environmental impacts of agricultural systems. Methods: We present the Swiss Agricultural Life Cycle Assessment (SALCA) concept and method, developed for a detailed and specific analysis of agricultural systems. It comprises rules for the definition of system boundaries, functional unit and allocation, emission models, a life cycle inventory (LCI) database, calculation tools, impact assessment methods and concepts for analysis, interpretation and communication. This paper focuses on emission models for gaseous N, nitrate leaching, P emissions to water, soil erosion, pesticides, heavy metals, emissions from animal production and impact assessment methods for soil quality and biodiversity. The models are calculated at the crop, field, animal group and farm levels and are integrated in a consistent and harmonised framework, which is ensured by exchanging intermediate results between models. Results and discussion: The SALCA concept has been applied in numerous LCA studies for crops and crop products, cropping systems, animal husbandry systems and animal products, food and feed products, farms and product groups, the agrifood sector and food systems. The SALCA methodology has also been a backbone of the LCI databases ecoinvent, AGRIBALYSE and the World Food LCA database. The strengths of SALCA lie in its comprehensiveness, specificity to agriculture, harmonisation, broad applicability, consistency, comparability, flexibility and modularity. The extensive data demand and the high complexity, however, limit the application of SALCA to experts. The geographical scope is limited to Central and Western Europe, with a special focus on Switzerland. However, due to the modular and flexible design, an adaptation to other contexts is feasible with reasonable effort. Conclusions: SALCA enables answering a wide range of research questions related to environmental assessment and is applicable to various goals and scopes. A further development would be the inclusion of the social and economic dimensions to perform a full sustainability analysis in the SALCAsustain framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Bio-based insulation materials are one of the most promising solutions for reducing the environmental impacts of building envelopes. Among these materials, the environmental benefits of mycelium-based materials have merely been investigated, despite their promising technical and thermal properties. In this paper, we perform a first prospective cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) of mycelium-based composite blocks. Methods: An attributional cradle-to-gate LCA of the laboratory production of mycelium-based composites was first performed, including 11 environmental impact indicators. Then, scenarios were defined to scale up the technology to the level of industrial production, including the remaining life cycle modules to perform a cradle-to-grave analysis. Biogenic and metabolic carbon were considered by applying the static −1/+1 approach and following the current LCA standards. Future-oriented energy and transport mixes were also included as an additional scenario, systematically modifying both the foreground and background data. Finally, the industrially scaled-up technology and alternative insulation materials were compared with these future conditions (as applied to both materials). Results and discussion: Considering climate change, the results are encouraging in comparison to those for traditional plastic insulation, but do not necessarily surpass those for other existing materials such as rock wool. However, trade-offs are observed in other indicators, for which mycelium-based composites tend to perform worse than traditional insulation materials. The industrial scale-up reduced impacts for most indicators, but a considerable trade-off was observed with regard to terrestrial ecotoxicity. The main driver for the remaining greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions was found to be the electricity use during the manufacturing phase. We consider the inclusion of the other life cycle stages as relevant, as this increased the GHG emissions by 10%. Limitations of the current LCA standards, however, are noted and discussed, especially regarding the cascading use of biogenic materials, and highlight the relevance of this case study. Conclusions: Mycelium-based composites show a potential for future development, but careful attention should be paid to reducing electricity needs in their manufacturing process. Further improvements could also be made by using fast-growing biogenic materials as a substrate. In particular, we encourage researchers to include all of the life cycle stages in future studies, especially if biogenic emissions are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: ISO 14020 series of standards provide guidance for establishing ecolabels and a classification based on three label types, I, II, and III. They also determine the consideration of product's life cycle and application of the life cycle assessment (LCA) in ecolabeling. Still, the large number and variety of existing ecolabels has led to consumer confusion in the recent years. The objective of this paper is to propose a characterization scheme for ecolabels and to provide recommendations for the enhancement of existing ecolabel classification, questioning the current sufficiency of ISO. Methods: To reach the objective, we first create a sample of ecolabels covering forest and paper products as an example, to narrow down the enormous number of existing ecolabels (over 460 as of August 2018). Second, we analyze their content, purpose, and awarding criteria through a desk research. In parallel, scientific publication, reports, and standards are also analyzed. Third, based on the obtained information, we define a list of ecolabel characterization attributes and their options and observe tendencies in ecolabel development. Ultimately, based on the outcomes of the proposed characterization scheme, we give recommendations for enhancement. Results and discussion: Ultimately, we compare a sample of 45 ecolabels against 18 attributes of the proposed characterization scheme, including, among others, their ISO typology, life cycle perspective, awarding format, covered environmental aspects, and scope. Regarding type I or type III label, ISO seems to be explicit and their requirements are well respected, including how LCA is to be applied. However, approximately 60% of the explored ecolabels in our sample did not declare any ISO typology, whereas none assigned a type II classification. These "undefined" ecolabels, as we call them, apply different awarding formats and criteria in combination and hybrid forms that are not recognized and described by ISO or any other observed classification approach. Misuse of the term "LCA" is also perceived in such "undefined" initiatives. Conclusions: We conclude that the current ISO standards on ecolabels belittle the consequences that the increased number of undefined ecolabels brings. We provide a list of recommendations for the enhancement of the current ISO classification in seven topics, namely, awarding format, aspects diversity, operation scope, verification, reconsideration of the usability of ISO 14021, new ISO classification, and transparency. Limitations of the study and outlook conclude the work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The production of processed food is a fast-growing and important industry in developing countries, with a large potential to improve its sustainability performance based on the triple bottom line concept. However, there are limited sustainability assessment (SA) studies reported for food manufacturing in developing countries. Thus, the prime objective of this study is to evaluate the sustainability performance of food (Tamar Cocoa) manufacturing and packaging activities in Malaysia with a gate-to-gate perspective by using a recently developed comprehensive method by Ahmad et al. (2019a). Methods: To achieve these objectives, the comprehensive and integrated stochastic-fuzzy (CISF) SA method was used. For the performance assessment and analysis, fuzzy logics and Monte Carlo simulations were used for fuzzy and stochastic uncertainties, respectively. In order to have a comprehensive and precise evaluation, a set of 57 and relatively weighted indicators was employed for all three sustainability dimensions. Various site visits were conducted to collect the primary data from a small-sized Malaysian food manufacturing company. Results and discussion: The results uncovered the company-wide key high- and low-performing areas. The analysis at the sustainability dimensions' level revealed that the case company performed better in terms of environmental performance than social and economic dimensions. With respect to social dimension, comparatively, the company performed better with respect to working conditions, but it needed to improve the area of customer wellbeing. However, the overall sustainability index revealed that various challenges and opportunities exist for the case study company to boost its sustainability performance and move towards the ideal sustainability level. Based on the results, the potential solutions and priority improvement areas were also discussed for the case company. Conclusions: The results were also compared with another related study from the literature. The CISF method was found to be a useful and reliable approach for a triple bottom line-based SA and comparison that provides a unit-less sustainability index. Overall, the SA studies may have an important impact to ameliorate the level of sustainability performance of the food processing and manufacturing companies in the developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Dunaliella is a halophilic genus of microalgae with high potential in the global food market. The microalgal cultivation process contributes to not only economic impact but also environmental impact, especially regarding the artificial medium composition. In this context, a life cycle assessment was carried out to analyze the impacts associated with the components of the modified Johnson medium (MJM) and to predict the best scenarios to cultivate Dunaliella tertiolecta and Dunaliella salina for biomass, glycerol, and beta-carotene production. Method: Two chains were analyzed separately: (1) Dunaliella salina (strain DF 15) cultivated in 8 scenarios combining different nitrogen (0.1 and 1.0 g L−1 KNO3) and magnesium (1.1–2.3 g L−1 MgCl2.6H2O) concentrations to produce biomass, glycerol, and beta-carotene and (2) Dunaliella tertiolecta (strain CCAP 19/30) cultivated in 5 scenarios combining different nitrogen (0.1 and 1.0 g L−1 KNO3) and salt (116.9–175.4 g L−1 sea salt) concentrations to produce biomass and glycerol. In addition, we evaluated the potential of cultivating these species to reduce the carbon footprint of the proposed scenarios. Results and discussion: For D. salina, S5 (1 g L−1 KNO3, 1.1 g L−1 MgCl2.6H2O) had the lowest environmental damage for biomass (74.2 mPt) and glycerol production (0.95 Pt) and S3 (0.1 g L−1 KNO3, 1.9 g L−1 MgCl2.6H2O) for beta-carotene (3.88 Pt). T4 (1 g L−1 KNO3, 116.9 g L−1 sea salt) was the best for D. tertiolecta for biomass (74 mPt) and glycerol (0.49 Pt). "Respiratory inorganics," "Non-renewable energy," and "Global warming" were the most impacted categories. "Human health," "Climate change," and "Resources" had the highest share of all damage categories. All the scenarios presented negative carbon emission after proposing using brine as alternative salt source: S5 was the best scenario (− 157.5 kg CO2-eq) for D. salina and T4 for D. tertiolecta (− 213.6 kg CO2-eq). Conclusion: The LCA proved its importance in accurately predicting the optimal scenarios for MJM composition in the analyzed bioproducts, as confirmed by the Monte Carlo simulation. Although the absolute values of impacts and productivity cannot be directly compared to large-scale cultivation, the validity of the LCA results at this scale remains intact. Productivity gains could outweigh the impacts of "surplus" MJM components. Our study showcased the potential of combining D. salina and D. tertiolecta cultivation with CO2 capture, leading to a more environmentally friendly cultivation system with a reduced carbon footprint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In Canada, 95–99% of produced forages are consumed domestically each year, mainly by beef cattle. Despite their importance, their contribution to the Canadian livestock industry and associated ecosystem services has not been investigated. This study developed a life cycle inventory (LCI) of perennial forage production in Canada averaged from 2009 to 2018. Methods: LCI data were sourced or calculated from up-to-date, regionally resolved sources and models. Inputs to perennial forage production included the following: concrete, steel, and plastic usage; machinery fuel consumption; electricity, natural gas, and water use for irrigation; and synthetic and organic fertilizer, lime, and herbicide use. Assessed emissions included ammonia and nitrous oxide (N2O); carbon dioxide from energy use; herbicide, nitrate, and phosphate losses; and soil carbon accumulation. Results were expressed per metric tonne of harvested perennial forage dry matter at provincial and regional scales—Western Canada [British Columbia (BC), Alberta (AB), Saskatchewan (SK), Manitoba (MB)] and Eastern Canada [Ontario (ON), Québec (QC)]. Results and discussion: Rates of inputs varied, with generally lower nutrient but higher herbicide application in West vs. East. Irrigation was highest in BC, followed by AB and SK; energy consumption was highest in BC and lowest in QC. Higher N2O losses and nutrient losses via leaching and runoff in the East were partially due to greater soil moisture. Although total harvested perennial forage area declined from 6.43 to 5.23 million hectares from 2009 to 2018, these lands continued to accumulate soil carbon. The time period used to calculate average yields affected LCI estimates, as prairie yields were lower 1994–2003/1999–2008 due to drought. Furthermore, soil carbon sequestration estimates were affected by the annual change coefficients employed, underscoring the need for careful interpretation of LCI outputs. Results were compared to other studies and highlighted the importance of the choice of data and methods in creating LCI, and the need for transparency. Conclusions: This first national LCI of perennial forage production in Canada provides a baseline for LCI inputs and outputs associated with this sector, highlighting provincial and regional differences. Outputs can be used to conduct future life cycle assessments to assess the environmental impacts of forage production and generate recommendations to improve sustainability, and for education and marketing purposes. This study demonstrates methodological best practices for LCI data mining and calculations, within available data and model limitations, thereby identifying gaps and providing a roadmap for other countries or sectors to develop detailed forage LCI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The objective of this work was to evaluate the environmental profile of milk production from family agro-industries in the State of São Paulo Brazil, in order to characterize them and identify opportunities to reduce their environmental footprint. Given the complexity, variability in the form of calculations and the importance of carbon balance accounting, this article discusses only this impact category. Methods: The data used in this project were collected through visits to 14 dairy farms. The life cycle assessment tool was used considering the stages of production of feed and maintenance of the cattle, considering heifer, lactating and non-lactating cows, the milking process, and milk cooling. A model to estimate the emissions resulting from enteric fermentation from the composition of the feed given to the animals was used. The inclusion and exclusion of carbon capturated during photosynthesis, as well as the biophysical allocation of part of the impacts to livestock co-production, were considered. Results and discussion: The simple average carbon footprints of the 14 farms were 2408 and 2189 kg CO2 eq. per 1000 kg FPCM, without and with, respectively, biophysical allocation of inputs and emissions between milk and cattle. The step with the greatest contribution to these emissions is that of enteric fermentation, which represented 60% of greenhouse gas emissions. The amount of feed offered varied greatly from 1118 to 2484 kg of DM (dry matter)/1000 kg FPCM. For cattle obtained from this herd, the calculated impact of climate change was 15,117 kg CO2 eq. per 1000 kg live weight of animals, using the same methodological approach. The carbon capturated during the photosynthesis process occurred in the production of feed was 1677 kg CO2 eq. per 1000 kg FPCM for milk and 15,003 kg CO2 eq. per 1000 kg live weight of animals, values that represent 76% and 99% of the calculated carbon footprint. Conclusions: Production units that combine smaller amounts of feed offered (in dry mass) by the functional unit, with little dependence on its external acquisition and good milk yield, tend to generate more environmentally efficient units. The authors consider that the carbon balance, including carbon captured during photosynthesis, is of great importance and should be accounted for and disclosed together with traditional calculations. Recent studies show that agriculture, which is part of this chain, when carried out with good cultivation practices, can be one of the most efficient ways of stocking carbon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Transhumance has rarely been analyzed through LCA approaches, and there is little evidence about its emissions level when conducted under different practices (by truck or on foot) or compared to sedentary livestock systems. Moreover, mobile pastoralism is strongly linked to natural resources by its seasonal grazing patterns, thereby occupying the niche of wild herbivores. Considering natural emission baselines in these ecosystems could have relevant effects when estimating their carbon footprint. Materials and methods: Inventory data of 20 sheep farms was collected to estimate the carbon footprint (CF) of lamb meat produced. Farms were divided into three sub-groups representing typical management practices in the region: (1) sedentary (SED), (2) transhumance by truck (THT), and (3) transhumance on foot (THF). Livestock GHG emissions were modeled according to herd structure and IPCC guidelines. Off-farm emissions from external feeds and fuels were accounted based on existent LCA databases. A natural baseline of wild herbivores was established from the population of red deer reported in a hunting preserve, previously considered to be a reference for the natural carrying capacity in Mediterranean ecosystems. GHG emissions of wild herbivores were estimated through two methods based on (1) IPCC guidelines and (2) allometric regression equations. Results and discussion: Carbon footprint ranged from 16.5 up to 26.9 kgCO2-eq/kg of lamb liveweight (LW). Significant differences were identified among sedentary and transhumant farms, the latter consistently showing lower CF values (SED: 25.1 kg CO2-eq/kg LW, THT: 18.3 kg CO2-eq/kg LW, THF: 18.2 kg CO2-eq/kg LW). Sedentary farms resulted in higher GHG emissions (+ 27%) and higher CO2 and N2O, contributions derived from the consumption of additional feeds. Both methods applied to compute emissions for wild herbivores led to similar results (25.3–26.8 Mg CO2-eq/km2), comparatively lower than estimation for transhumant sheep (47.7 Mg CO2-eq/km2). When considering natural baseline emissions, the CF of transhumant lamb meat is reduced by almost 30%, reaching values quite below those reported for intensive lamb production systems in Spain. Conclusions: From our results, mobility of grazing livestock can be considered as a strategy promoting climate change mitigation. This is achieved mainly by reducing the need of external feeds, while maximizing the use of local forage resources that otherwise would be difficult to valorize. Further reductions in the CF result when considering natural baseline emissions. The application of this new GHG accounting perspective could have relevant implications when aiming at climate neutrality of grazing-based ruminant systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Impacts of mineral resource use on the availability of resources can be assessed using a broad range of methods. Until recently, life cycle inventory (LCI) and life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) models have been based on resource extraction. As extracted resources are not necessarily "lost" for future use, recent methodological developments have shifted the focus from resource extraction to resource dissipation. This paper aims at reviewing dissipation-based LCIA methods, testing them in a case study, analyzing potential implications for the product environmental footprint (PEF), and providing recommendations for future method development. Method: Five recently developed LCIA methods have been reviewed and compared based on 22 criteria, such as the forms and time horizons of dissipation considered, scientific publication, and number of characterization factors (CFs). Additionally, the abiotic depletion potential (ADP) method has been included to serve as a non-dissipation-based reference. All methods are tested in a case study on a theoretical product, designed solely for demonstration purposes, and consisting of 1 kg of the metals aluminum, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, nickel, and zinc. In addition to the absolute LCIA results, the contributions of metal production stages and individual resource extractions/emissions have been investigated. Finally, normalization and weighting have been carried out to analyze consequences of replacing ADP with the new dissipation-based methods in the context of PEF. Results and discussion: Most recently developed LCIA methods take a long-term perspective, cover emissions of resources to the environment (and partly technosphere), and vary in the number of CFs and resources covered. The case study results obtained by ADP are dominated by the molybdenum dataset; the results of the dissipation-based LCIA methods are strongly influenced by the cobalt dataset. All results are strongly sensitive to the LCI database used (ecoinvent or GaBi). Normalization and weighting revealed that the mineral resource use impact result dominates the aggregated PEF score (57%), when using the currently recommended ADP model. Shifting from the resource extraction-based ADP to dissipation-based models can reduce the contribution to 23% or < 1% depending on the method. Conclusion: The development of methods addressing mineral resource use in LCIA has shifted from resource extraction to dissipation. The analyzed methods are applicable and lead to different findings than the extraction-based ADP. Using the newly developed methods in the context of PEF would significantly change the relevance of the mineral resource use impact category in comparison to other environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Anthropogenic activities are a major driver of soil and land degradation. Due to the spatial heterogeneity of soil properties and the global nature of most value chains, the modelling of the impacts of land use on soil quality for application in life cycle assessment (LCA) requires a regionalised assessment with global coverage. This paper proposes an approach to quantify the impacts of land use on soil quality, using changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks as a proxy, following the latest recommendation of the Life Cycle Initiative. Methods: An operational set of SOC-based characterisation factors for land occupation and land transformation were derived using spatial datasets (1 km resolution) and aggregated at the national and global levels. The developed characterisation factors were tested by means of a case study analysis, investigating the impact on soil quality caused by land use activities necessary to provide three alternative energy supply systems for passenger car transport (biomethane, ethanol, and solar electricity). Results obtained by applying characterisation factors at local, regional, and national levels were compared, to investigate the role of the level of regionalisation on the resulting impacts. Results and discussion: Global maps of characterisation factors are presented for the 56 land use types commonly used in LCA databases, together with national and global values. Urban and industrial land uses present the highest impacts on SOC stocks, followed by severely degraded pastures and intensively managed arable lands. Instead, values obtained for extensive pastures, flooded crops, and urban green areas often report an increase in SOC stocks. Results show that the ranking of impacts of the three energy systems considered in the case study analysis is not affected by the level of regionalisation of the analysis. In the case of biomethane energy supply, impacts assessed using national characterisation factors are more than double those obtained with local characterisation factors, with less significant differences in the other two cases. Conclusions: The integration of soil quality aspects in life cycle impact assessment methods is a crucial challenge due to the key role of soil conservation in ensuring food security and environmental protection. This approach allows the quantification of land use impacts on SOC stocks, taken as a proxy of soil quality. Further research needs to improve the assessment of land use impacts in LCA are identified, such as the ability to reflect the effects of agricultural and forestry management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: When resources are extracted and used by society, they are not necessarily lost for future generations. Therefore, recent publications on impact assessment of abiotic resource use in life cycle assessment focus on a decreased accessibility of resources due to dissipation, rather than depletion. In a previous study, dissipation was defined as a function of the global change in accessible stock due to human actions, and the global amount of the accessible stock, assuming a very long-term time perspective (more than 500 years). In this paper, a short-term time perspective (25 years) is adopted. Methods: The same generic characterization model is used, but different choices are outlined to derive characterization factors for a short-term perspective (25 years). To illustrate how the short term might be approached, a preliminary set of characterization factors is developed, based on assumptions and estimates. Results: The problem of resource use is defined as follows: the decrease of accessibility on a global level of primary and/or secondary elements over the short term due to the net result of compromising actions (i.e., emissions, dissipation in the technosphere, occupation in use, and exploration for new stocks). Characterization factors are derived based on assumptions, like the following: the accessible stock is based on present estimates of accessible stocks in the environment and the technosphere; estimates of accessible stocks in the technosphere are based on past extractions and generic recycling rates; all flows that are presently not recycled are assumed to be inaccessible. Finally, weighting between elements and the functions they have for the present society is based on the added value of the economic sector that is affected due to the decreased accessibility. Discussion and conclusion: A preliminary set of characterization factors is proposed for 55 elements. They assess the impact of the present use of resources on the decreased accessibility in the short term due to emissions and dissipation in the technosphere. However, calculation of impact category scores is still hampered by a lack of appropriate data for dissipative flows in life cycle inventory databases. The presented calculations are based on several simplifications and proxies. A more detailed distinction of dissipative flows and estimates of stocks in the technosphere may be possible based on (dynamic) SFA modelling of elements in different applications. To derive a more mature set of characterization factors, it is recommended to use the presented model as a basis and further elaborate or replace the proxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The mining industry plays a critical role in the global economy by providing raw materials and metals for various sectors, but it is also associated with environmental and social impacts. This paper presents a comparison of the findings from social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) with those obtained from a stakeholders' risk perception analysis. The goal is to provide a multifaceted view on the challenges faced by the mining industry in achieving sustainable practices. Methods: This research reports the results of S-LCA and stakeholders' risk perception analysis used to evaluate the social dimension of sustainability in two different European Horizon 2020 projects: (i) recovery of secondary metals and minerals from mining residues through bioleaching and chemical precipitation (project NEMO with a demonstration site in Finland), and (ii) recycling of wastewater and valorization of tailings from mining activities to create geopolymers through chemical activation (project ITERAMS with a demonstration site in Portugal). Results: The S-LCA conducted in NEMO reveals that fair salary is the social category presenting the highest risk (22% of the total). This risk is unequally shared between foreground activities (4%) and background activities (18%), and it occurs mostly in Finland. The S-LCA in ITERAMS shows that the low percentage of employees organized in trade unions accounts for the highest social risk (14%), occurring mostly with the background activities (8.5% out of the 14%). The risk perception analysis conducted among involved stakeholders for both projects highlighted that the analysis performed using only S-LCA databases overestimated some social issues (e.g., access to biomass, trade unionism) that were not relevant for local stakeholders while underestimating, or even ignoring, other social issues that are considered important by the same stakeholders (e.g., health and safety, housing prices). Conclusions: The two case studies show the critical need to integrate locally gathered data from stakeholders directly involved in the projects with the broader insights offered by sector-level S-LCA. Local analysis can capture site-specific dynamics and social risk perceptions, while S-LCA can extend the analysis to the entire supply chain. Both analyses highlighted that one of the main limitations of the current S-LCA framework is the omission of the positive environmental, social and economic effects resulting from the proposed projects. Ultimately, these case studies provided valuable insights for the stakeholders involved in both projects, facilitating information sharing concerning the primary social risks associated with the development and implementation of the technologies proposed by the projects. This empowers decision-makers with the information required to formulate strategies that can enhance the sustainability of the bioleaching and geopolymer technologies used to valorize mining residues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The effects of tourism extend beyond purely economic considerations; they also have an impact on both the environment and people. Development of tools and procedures that foster consensus among practitioners and enable the measurement and benchmarking of impacts are required for tourism managers to be able to work on lowering and mitigating the sector's effects, while enhancing the positive benefits. In this study a methodological proposition to assess the social impacts of tourism packages is presented. Aim and scope: This study adapts and tests for the first time a social evaluation technique, the Product Social Impact Assessment (PSIA) method, to assess the social implications of tourism products and services. It is iteratively tested on 9 tourism packages in Mediterranean Protected Areas. Numerous parties, including managers of protected areas and private tourism stakeholders, have engaged in this process at various stages, such as developing the packages or supplying the data required for the assessment. Conclusions: The methodology tested appears appropriate to quantify and qualify the social impacts of tourism packages and is valid for enhancing the social performance since positive progress between the two testing faces was registered. This study is a step towards standardizing the social assessment of tourism packages following a Life Cycle Assessment approach, and future developments are needed to make the approach proposed in the paper adequate to assess the social impacts of the upstream and downstream components of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]