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Background: Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) are the causative agent for Lyme borreliosis (LB), the most common tick-borne disease in the northern hemisphere. Birds are considered important in the global dispersal of ticks and tick-borne pathogens through their migration. The present study is the first description of B. burgdorferi prevalence and genotypes in Ixodes ricinus ticks feeding on birds during spring and autumn migration in Norway. Methods: 6538 migratory birds were captured and examined for ticks at Lista Bird Observatory during the spring and the autumn migration in 2008. 822 immature I. ricinus ticks were collected from 215 infested birds. Ticks were investigated for infection with B. burgdorferi s.l. by real-time PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene, and B. burgdorferi s.l. were thereafter genotyped by melting curve analysis after real-time PCR amplification of the hbb gene, or by direct sequencing of the PCR amplicon generated from the rrs (16S)-rrl (23S) intergenetic spacer. Results: B. burgdorferi s.l. were detected in 4.4% of the ticks. The most prevalent B. burgdorferi genospecies identified were B. garinii (77.8%), followed by B.valaisiana (11.1%), B. afzelii (8.3%) and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (2.8%). Conclusion: Infection rate in ticks and genospecies composition were similar in spring and autumn migration, however, the prevalence of ticks on birds was higher during spring migration. The study supports the notion that birds are important in the dispersal of ticks, and that they may be partly responsible for the heterogeneous distribution of B. burgdorferi s.l. in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Bovine babesiosis is regarded as a limited health problem for Norwegian cows, and the incidence has decreased markedly since the 1930s. Rare cases of babesiosis in splenectomised humans from infection with Babesia divergens and B.venatorum have been described. The objective of this study was to determine whether birds can introduce Babesia-infected ticks. There are between 30 and 85 million passerine birds that migrate to Norway every spring. Methods: Passerine birds were examined for ticks at four bird observatories along the southern Norwegian coast during the spring migrations of 2003, 2004 and 2005. The presence of Babesia was detected in the nymphs of Ixodes ricinus by real-time PCR. Positive samples were confirmed using PCR, cloning and phylogenetic analyses. Results: Of 512 ticks examined, real-time PCR revealed five to be positive (1.0%). Of these, four generated products that indicated the presence of Babesia spp.; each of these were confirmed to be from Babesia venatorum (EU1). Two of the four B. venatorum-positive ticks were caught from birds having an eastern migratory route (P< 0.001). Conclusions: Birds transport millions of ticks across the North Sea, the Skagerrak and the Kattegat every year. Thus, even with the low prevalence of Babesia-infected ticks, a substantial number of infected ticks will be transported into Norway each year. Therefore, there is a continuous risk for introduction of new Babesia spp. into areas where I. ricinus can survive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Anaplasma phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia phagocytophila) causes the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants and has for decades been one of the main scourges for the sheep industry in the coastal areas of Norway. Current control strategies are based on reduction of tick infestation by chemical acaricides. Methods: In the present study, we investigated if frequent pour-on applications of pyrethroids would reduce tick infestion rate and seroprevalence of A. phagocytophilum infection in sheep. Forty lambs, one month old, of the Norwegian White Sheep breed were used. The lambs belonged to the experimental sheep flock at the Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences. None of the lambs had been on I. ricinus infested pasture before turnout (day 0). All lambs were twins and twenty lambs were treated with a pour-on pyrethroid (Bayticol®, Bayer A/S,DK-2300) with a dose of 5 ml on days 0, 14, 28, 42, 56, 70, 84, 98, 112 and 128. Twenty lambs were untreated controls. The lambs were collected every fourteen days on pasture for treatment. In addition, the lambs were examined for ticks, blood sampled, weighed, and rectal temperature was recorded.Results and conclusion: A significant reduction in tick infestion rate was detected on treated lambs. However, the present results indicate that frequent acaricide treatment does not reduce the seroprevalence to A. phagocytophilum on tick-infested pasture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of urbanization in natural environments increases interactions between wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. In Italy, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is one of the most common wild carnivores. This species can serve as a reservoir and sentinel host for several infectious diseases. We aimed to improve knowledge about the exposure of red foxes to selected zoonotic (Anaplasma spp, Ehrlichia spp., Borrelia spp., and hepatitis E virus) and carnivore-specific pathogens (canine parvovirus, canine distemper virus, pseudorabies virus, and Dirofilaria spp.) through a retrospective survey performed in the Tuscany region during the spring season of 2013. Using specific ELISAs and serum samples (n = 38) collected during a culling campaign, a prevalence of 2.6% for canine distemper virus, 18.4% for canine parvovirus, 5.2% for Anaplasma spp., 2.6% for Ehrlichia spp., 7.9% for Dirofilaria spp., 21.05% for hepatitis E virus, and 10.5% for pseudorabies virus was observed. Conversely, antibodies against Borrelia spp. were not identified in any of the animals. Our results revealed no significant sex-related differences in seroprevalence and confirmed hepatitis E virus as the most common pathogen in the analyzed samples. All of the animals that tested positive for tick-borne zoonotic agents presented ticks at the time of sampling. Our study confirms the exposure of red foxes in the Tuscany region to viral and bacterial infections raising medical and veterinary concern and indicating the need for large-scale surveillance to fully assess the epidemiological significance of these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canine vector-borne diseases are caused by pathogens transmitted by arthropods including ticks, mosquitoes and sand flies. Many canine vector-borne diseases are of zoonotic importance. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of vector-borne infections caused by Dirofilaria immitis, Ehrlichia canis, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Anaplasma spp. and Leishmania infantum in a dog kennel in Argeș County, Romania. Dog kennels are shelters for stray dogs with no officially registered owners that are gathered to be neutered and/or boarded for national/international adoptions by various public or private organizations. The international dog adoptions might represent a risk in the transmission of pathogens into new regions. In this context, a total number of 149 blood samples and 149 conjunctival swabs from asymptomatic kennel dogs were assessed using serology and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Antibodies against B. burgdorferi s.l. were detected in one dog (0.6%), anti-Anaplasma antibodies were found in five dogs (3.3%), while ten dogs (6.7%) tested positive for D. immitis antigen. Overall, 20.1% (30/149) of dogs were positive for L. infantum DNA. All samples were seronegative for anti-Leishmania antibodies. When adopting dogs from this region of Romania, owners should be aware of possible infection with especially L. infantum. The travel of infected dogs may introduce the infection to areas where leishmaniasis is not present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The vector-borne human viral zoonosis tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is of growing concern in Sweden. The area where TBE is considered endemic has expanded, with an increasing geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus as the tick vector and a rising number of reported TBE cases in humans. Efforts to map TBE risk areas have been carried out by sentinel monitoring, mainly based on individual sampling and analysis of wild and domestic animals, as well as ticks, for tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). However, the interpretation of the geographical distribution has been hampered by the patchy and focal nature of TBEV occurrence. This study presents TBEV surveillance data based on antibody analysis of bulk tank milk collected from dairy herds located throughout Sweden before (May) and after (November) the vector season. A commercial TBEV antibody ELISA was modified and evaluated for use in this study. Results: The initial comparative TBEV antibody analysis revealed a good correlation between milk and serum antibody levels from individually sampled cows. Also, the TBEV-antibody levels for the mean-herd serum showed good comparability with TBEV antibody levels from bulk tank milk, thus indicating good predictability of seroprevalence when analysing bulk tank milk from a herd. Analyses of bulk tank milk samples collected from 616 herds in May and 560 herds in November showed a geographical distribution of TBEV seropositive herds that was largely consistent with reported human TBE cases. A few TBEV-reactive herds were also found outside known locations of human TBE cases. Conclusion: Serological examination of bulk tank milk from dairy cattle herds may be a useful sentinel surveillance method to identify geographical presence of TBEV. In contrast to individual sampling this method allows a large number of animals to be monitored. TBEV seropositive herds were mainly found in coastal areas of southern Sweden similar to human TBE cases. However, some antibody-reactive herds were found outside known TBE areas at the time of the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intracellular bacteria Anaplasma spp. and Coxiella burnetii and the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) are tick-transmitted pathogens circulating in the southern German sheep population. Knowledge of interaction among Anaplasma spp., C. burnetii and TBEV in sheep is lacking, but together they might promote and reinforce disease progression. The current study aimed to identify co-exposure of sheep to Anaplasma spp., C. burnetii and TBEV. For this purpose, 1,406 serum samples from 36 sheep flocks located in both southern German federal states, Baden-Wuerttemberg and Bavaria, were analysed by ELISAs to determine the antibody levels of the three pathogens. Inconclusive and positive results from the TBEV ELISA were additionally confirmed by a serum neutralisation assay. The proportion of sheep with antibodies against Anaplasma spp. (47.2%), C. burnetii (3.7%) and TBEV (4.7%) differed significantly. Significantly more flocks with Anaplasma spp. seropositive sheep (91.7%) were detected than flocks with antibodies against TBEV (58.3%) and C. burnetii (41.7%), but there was no significant difference between the number of flocks which contained TBEV and C. burnetii seropositive sheep. Seropositivity against at least two pathogens was detected in 4.7% of sheep from 20 flocks. Most co-exposed sheep had antibodies against Anaplasma spp./TBEV (n = 36), followed by Anaplasma spp./C. burnetii (n = 27) and Anaplasma spp./C. burnetii/TBEV (n = 2). Only one sheep showed an immune response against C. burnetii and TBEV. Flocks with sheep being positive against more than one pathogen were widely distributed throughout southern Germany. The descriptive analysis revealed no association between the antibody response of the three pathogens at animal level. Taking the flocks as a cluster variable into account, the exposure to TBEV reduced the probability of identifying C. burnetii antibodies in sheep significantly (odds ratio 0.46; 95% confidence interval 0.24–0.85), but the reason for this is unknown. The presence of Anaplasma spp. antibodies did not influence the detection of antibodies against C. burnetii and TBEV. Studies under controlled conditions are necessary to evaluate any possible adverse impact of co-exposure to tick-borne pathogens on sheep health. This can help to clarify rare disease patterns. Research in this field may also support the One Health approach due to the zoonotic potential of Anaplasma spp., C. burnetii and TBEV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A major challenge in sheep farming during the grazing season along the coast of south-western Norway is tick-borne fever (TBF) caused by the bacteria Anaplasma phagocytophilum that is transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus. Methods: A study was carried out in 2007 and 2008 to examine the prevalence of A. phagocytophilum infection and effect on weaning weight in lambs. The study included 1208 lambs from farms in Sunndal Ram Circle in Møre and Romsdal County in Mid-Norway, where ticks are frequently observed. All lambs were blood sampled and serum was analyzed by an indirect fluorescent antibody assay (IFA) to determine an antibody status (positive or negative) to A. phagocytophilum infection. Weight and weight gain and possible effect of infection were analyzed using ANOVA and the MIXED procedure in SAS. Results: The overall prevalence of infection with A. phagocytophilum was 55%. A lower weaning weight of 3% (1.34 kg, p < 0.01) was estimated in lambs seropositive to an A. phagocytophilum infection compared to seronegative lambs at an average age of 137 days. Conclusions: The results show that A. phagocytophilum infection has an effect on lamb weight gain. The study also support previous findings that A. phagocytophilum infection is widespread in areas where ticks are prevalent, even in flocks treated prophylactic with acaricides. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the causative agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) in humans and tick-borne fever (TBF) in ruminants. The bacterium invades and replicates in phagocytes, especially in polymorphonuclear granulocytes. Methods: In the present study, skin biopsies and ticks (Ixodes ricinus) were collected from tick feeding lesions on 38 grazing lambs between two and three weeks after access to pastures. The histopathological changes associated with tick bites and A. phagocytophilum infection, were described. In addition the skin biopsies were examined by immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, samples from blood, skin biopsies and ticks were examined by serology, PCR amplification of msp2 (p44), genotyping of rrs (16S rRNA) variants, and compared with the results obtained from histological and immunohistochemical investigations. Results: Tick bites were associated with chronic and hyperplastic inflammatory skin lesions in this study. A. phagocytophilum present in skin lesions were mainly associated with neutrophils and macrophages. Bacteria were occasionally observed in the Tunica media and Tunica adventitia of small vessels, but were rarely found in association with endothelial cells. PCR and genotyping of organisms present in blood, ticks and skin biopsies suggested a haematogenous and a local spread of organisms at the tick attachment sites. Conclusions: The present study describes different aspects of A. phagocytophilum infection at the site of tick bite, and indicates that A. phagocytophilum rarely associates with endothelium during the early pathogenesis of infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are widely distributed across Europe. They may play an important role by spreading zoonotic bacteria in the environment and to humans and animals. The aim of our work was to study the prevalence and characteristics of the most important foodborne bacterial pathogens in wild hedgehogs. Results: Faecal samples from 148 hospitalised wild hedgehogs originating from the Helsinki region in southern Finland were studied. Foodborne pathogens were detected in 60% of the hedgehogs by PCR. Listeria (26%) and STEC (26%) were the most common foodborne pathogens. Salmonella, Yersinia, and Campylobacter were detected in 18%, 16%, and 7% of hedgehogs, respectively. Salmonella and Yersinia were highly susceptible to the tested antimicrobials. Salmonella Enteritidis and Listeria monocytogenes 2a were the most common types found in hedgehogs. All S. Enteritidis belonged to one sequence type (ST11), forming four clusters of closely related isolates. L. monocytogenes was genetically more diverse than Salmonella, belonging to 11 STs. C. jejuni ST45 and ST677, Y. pseudotuberculosis O:1 of ST9 and ST42, and Y. enterocolitica O:9 of ST139 were also found. Conclusions: Our study shows that wild European hedgehogs should be considered an important source of foodborne pathogens, and appropriate hygiene measures after any contact with hedgehogs and strict biosecurity around farms are therefore important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The incidence of bovine babesiosis, caused by Babesia divergens (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida) has decreased markedly since the 1930 s, but may re-emerge as a consequence of climate change and changes in legislation and pasturing practices. This is a potentially serious disease, with both economical and animal welfare consequences. Therefore, there is a need to survey the distribution of B. divergens. Methods: We tested sera from 306 healthy pastured cows from 24 farms along the southern Norwegian coast by using an indirect immunofluorescence IgG antibody test (IFAT). Fractions of seropositive cows were compared by calculating 95% CI. Results: The results of this test showed that 27% of the sera were positive for B. divergens antibodies. The fraction of antibody-positive sera that we detected showed a two-humped distribution, with a high fraction of positives being found in municipalities in the western and eastern parts of the study area, while the municipalities between these areas had few or no positive serum samples. Conclusions: Neither the farmers' observations nor the Norwegian Dairy Herd Recording System give an adequate picture of the distribution of bovine babesiosis. Serological testing of cows by using IFAT is a convenient way of screening for the presence of B. divergens in an area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring disease among wildlife is critical to preserving health in both domestic animals and wildlife, and it becomes much more critical when the diseases cause significant economic damage to the livestock industry or threaten public health. Given the continuous increase in populations and its role as a reservoir for several infections, wild boar (Sus scrofa) requires special attention regarding disease surveillance and monitoring. In this study, we investigated the molecular prevalence of selected pathogens in the wild boar population of Campania, southern Italy. The prevalence of pathogens causing reproductive problems in pigs (Sus domesticus), including porcine parvovirus (PPV), porcine circovirus types 2 and 3 (PCV-2 and PCV-3), pseudorabies virus (PRV), Coxiella burnetii, and Brucella suis, was evaluated by testing the reproductive organs collected from 63 wild boars with polymerase chain reaction. The most common pathogens were PPV (44.4%) and two porcine circoviruses (14.3%). PRV and C. burnetii, on the other hand, showed a significantly lower prevalence (1.6%). No reproductive organs tested were positive for B. suis. Risk factor analysis revealed a correlation between age and PCV-2 positivity, with animals less than 12 months old having significantly higher prevalence rates. Our findings suggest that wild boars hunted in the Campania region harbour several infections potentially transmissible to other mammals' reproductive tracts. Furthermore, our results emphasized the importance of strict adherence to biosecurity protocols on domestic swine farms, especially on free-range farms, to avoid interactions between domestic and wild animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a zoonotic neurological disease caused by tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), a flavivirus endemic in parts of Europe and Asia. Seroconversion without signs of clinical disease is common in dogs and most of the cases previously described have been tentatively diagnosed by combining neurologic signs with serum antibody titres. Here, the first Scandinavian RT-qPCR-confirmed clinical case of TBE in a dog is reported. Case presentation: A 4-year old castrated male Pointer Labrador cross was presented with acute-onset ataxia. During hospitalisation, the dog developed seizures. Despite aggressive treatment with steroids, antimicrobials and sedation/anaesthesia, there was continued deterioration during the following 24 h after admission and the dog was euthanised and submitted for necropsy. Histopathological changes in the brain were consistent with lymphoplasmacytic and histiocytic meningoencephalomyelitis. RT-qPCR examination of the brain was positive for TBEV, confirming infection. Conclusions: Meningoencephalomyelitis caused by TBEV should be a diagnostic consideration in dogs presenting with clinical signs of central nervous system disease such as acute-onset ataxia and seizures in areas where TBEV-positive ticks are endemic. Clinical TBE may be underdiagnosed in dogs due to lack of specific testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Prevalence data in ruminant species are important to support risk assessments regarding public and animal health. The aim was to investigate the presence of or exposure to C. burnetii in cattle, sheep, goats and moose, and to compare two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). National surveys of antibodies against C. burnetii were performed for dairy cattle (n=1537), dairy goats (n=58) and sheep (n=518). Bovine samples consisted of bulk milk, caprine of pooled milk, and ovine of pooled serum. Antibodies were investigated in moose samples (n=99) from three regions. A one-year regional cattle bulk milk survey was performed on the Isle of Gotland (n=119, four occasions). Cattle, sheep and goat samples were analysed with indirect ELISA and moose samples with complement fixation test. For the sheep, goat, and parts of the cattle survey, samples were run in parallel by ELISAs based on antigens from infected ruminants and ticks. Bulk milk samples from the regional cattle survey and vaginal swabs from a subset of the sheep herds (n=80) were analysed for the agent by polymerase chain reaction. Spatial clustering was investigated in the national cattle survey. Results: The prevalence of antibodies in dairy herds was 8.2% with large regional differences. High risk clusters were identified in the southern regions. The prevalence among dairy herds on the Isle of Gotland varied from 55.9% to 64.6% and 46.4% to 58.9.0% for antibodies and agent, respectively, overall agreement between agent and antibodies was 85.2%. The prevalence of antibodies in sheep was 0.6%, the agent was not detected the vaginal swabs. Antibodies were not detected in goats or moose, although parts of the moose samples were collected in an area with high prevalence in cattle. The overall agreement between the two ELISAs was 90.4%. Conclusions: The prevalence of antibodies against C. burnetii in dairy cattle in Sweden shows large regional differences. The results suggest that C. burnetii is a rare pathogen among Swedish moose, dairy goat and sheep. ELISAs based on ruminant and tick antigen performed in a similar manner under Swedish conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It has been questioned if the old native Norwegian sheep breed, Old Norse Sheep (also called Norwegian Feral Sheep), normally distributed on coastal areas where ticks are abundant, is more protected against tick-borne infections than other Norwegian breeds due to a continuously high selection pressure on pasture. The aim of the present study was to test this hypothesis in an experimental infection study. Methods: Five-months-old lambs of two Norwegian sheep breeds, Norwegian White (NW) sheep and Old Norse (ON) sheep, were experimentally infected with a 16S rRNA genetic variant of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (similar to GenBank accession number M73220). The experiment was repeated for two subsequent years, 2008 and 2009, with the use of 16 lambs of each breed annually. Ten lambs of each breed were inoculated intravenously each year with 0.4 ml A. phagocytophilum-infected blood containing approximately 0.5 × 106 infected neutrophils/ml. Six lambs of each breed were used as uninfected controls. Half of the primary inoculated lambs in each breed were re-challenged with the same infectious dose at nine (2008) and twelve (2009) weeks after the first challenge. The clinical, haematological and serological responses to A. phagocytophilum infection were compared in the two sheep breeds. Results: The present study indicates a difference in fever response and infection rate between breeds of Norwegian sheep after experimental infection with A. phagocytophilum. Conclusion: Although clinical response seems to be less in ON-lambs compared to NW-lambs, further studies including more animals are needed to evaluate if the ON-breed is more protected against tick-borne infections than other Norwegian breeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Anaplasmosis is a vectorborne disease caused by the gram-negative bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum. This species displays positive tropism to granulocytes and can cause illness in several mammalian species, including cats, dogs, and humans. It is considered as an emerging disease in Europe. The clinical signs are nonspecific and include fever, lethargy, and inappetence. The most typical hematologic abnormality is thrombocytopenia. A tentative diagnosis can be made by detecting intracytoplasmic morulae inside neutrophils. The diagnosis is confirmed by PCR and serology in paired serum samples. A sample for PCR analysis should be taken before treatment. Anaplasmosis is treated with doxycycline. Case presentation: A feline case of anaplasmosis is presented. The history, clinical presentation, diagnostics, treatment, and follow-up are discussed. Conclusions: This case indicates that Anaplasma phagocytophilum infects cats in Finland. To provide accurate treatment, anaplasmosis should be listed as a differential diagnosis in cats suffering from acute febrile illness with previous tick exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the causative agent of tick-borne fever in ruminants and human granulocytotropic anaplasmosis (HGA). The bacterium is able to survive for several months in immune-competent sheep by modifying important cellular and humoral defence mechanisms. Little is known about how different strains of A. phagocytophilum propagate in their natural hosts during persistent infection. Methods: Two groups of five lambs were infected with each of two 16S rRNA gene variants of A. phagocytophilum, i.e. 16S variant 1 which is identical to GenBank no M73220 and 16S variant 2 which is identical to GenBank no AF336220, respectively. The lambs were infected intravenously and followed by blood sampling for six months. A. phagocytophilum infection in the peripheral blood was detected by absolute quantitative real-time PCR. Results: Both 16S rRNA gene variants of A. phagocytophilum established persistent infection for at least six months and showed cyclic bacteraemias, but variant 1 introduced more frequent periods of bacteraemia and higher number of organisms than 16S rRNA gene variant 2 in the peripheral blood. Conclusion: Organisms were available from blood more or less constantly during the persistent infection and there were individual differences in cyclic activity of A. phagocytophilum in the infected animals. Two 16S rRNA gene variants of A. phagocytophilum show differences in cyclic activity during persistent infection in lambs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaplasmosis is a tick-borne infectious disease that affects both human and animal health. This study was performed to characterize and investigate the prevalence of infection with Anaplasma bovis in Holstein cattle originating from two regions in the Republic of Korea (ROK). Blood samples (n = 151; 80 from Namwon and 71 from Jeju Island) were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction, and the prevalence of A. bovis infection was compared before and after grazing. In Namwon, A. bovis infection was not detected, while in the Jeju Island, A. bovis infection was detected in three of 13 animals after grazing. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the A. bovis isolates had homology (97.1–99.7%) with a Korean spotted deer (Cervus nippon) isolate and Haemaphysalis longicornis tick isolates identified in the ROK. A. bovis infection has not previously been diagnosed in cattle in the ROK. This study shows that A. bovis infection in the Jeju Island is closely related to grazing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The effects of climate change, loss of pastureland to other land usage and presence of large carnivores are the main reasons for the increase in supplementary feeding of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Fennoscandia over the last decades. Feeding might expose reindeer to stress and increased animal-to-animal contact, leading to an increased risk of infectious disease transmission, such as infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC). As it can develop rapidly and be very painful, IKC is described as an important animal welfare concern and a potential source of economic loss. The aim of this study was to investigate the current presence of IKC and potential associations between IKC and supplementary feeding through an online questionnaire survey, distributed among reindeer herders in Norway and Sweden in 2021. Results: Seventy-six reindeer herders (33 from Norway and 43 from Sweden) responded to the questionnaire, representing 6% and 4% of the registered reindeer herding groups in Norway and Sweden, respectively. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was common, with 54 (71%) of the 76 herders that responded having observed clinical signs during the past 10 years. These signs were mainly observed as increased lacrimation, causing "wet cheeks", but also as keratitis and conjunctivitis. Autumn and winter were the seasons in which IKC was observed most. The herders reported several measures, such as slaughter and isolation of affected reindeer, to counteract the spread of disease. The herding year 2019/2020 was associated with reports of outbreaks of IKC in herds as well as being the herding year where most herders (80%) had performed supplementary feeding. A significant association was found between IKC and feeding performed in an enclosure (odds ratio = 15.20), while feeding on free-range areas had a non-significant, negative, relationship with the appearance of IKC outbreaks (odds ratio = 0.29). Finally, there was a trend in the data suggesting that IKC affected calves especially. Conclusions: Infectious keratoconjunctivitis is a common disease, mainly observed in winter and autumn. It usually has mild to moderately severe clinical signs. Our results imply that IKC is associated with stress and feeding situations and that calves might be more susceptible than adults, however, this needs to be confirmed with further studies, preferably at an individual animal level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Populations of unowned unsocialised cats are present worldwide. Generally, there is concern about their welfare. Low body condition score (BCS) is a potentially relevant indicator that is relatively easy to assess: emaciated cats are likely to have welfare problems while thin cats may be at risk of becoming emaciated. The objective of this study was to assess the association of low BSC with a selection of factors relating to the host, disease, and infection in unowned unsocialised domestic cats. We necropsied 598 euthanised unowned unsocialised cats from Denmark. We recorded each cat's age-group, sex, and neuter status, together with its pregnancy status, the season and location of trapping, as well as gross lesions at necropsy. We also tested for feline immunodeficiency virus and feline leukaemia virus, recorded presence of ectoparasites, and a subsample of the cats were also tested for endoparasites. Cats with no or sparse adipose deposits were categorised as having low BCS, and logistic regression was used to determine the factors associated with low BCS. Results: Of the cats, 11.4% had low BCS. Season, age-group and sex were associated with low BCS and confounded potential associations with other variables. Intact adult males and females in spring and early summer were at highest risk of low BCS. When these factors were taken into account, cats with biting lice had 2.8 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.4–5.4) times higher odds of low BCS, and cats with gastro-intestinal findings (i.e., enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes, abdominal hernia, diarrhoea, obstructive foreign bodies, or diaphragmatic hernia) had 50 (95% CI 10–417) times higher odds of low BCS, than cats with no such findings. Cats with low BCS were primarily adult intact cats with tooth lesions and skin lesions, ear mite infection, and positive test result for feline immunodeficiency virus. Conclusions: The results highlight associations that can be used to define a risk profile: low BCS, notably in summer-autumn, in an unowned unsocialised cat was associated with underlying, less visible problems. Thus, low BCS can be more than a step towards being emaciated; it can also be an indicator of other underlying welfare problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

=Background: Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Anaplasma phagocytophilum are able to infect horses. However, the extend to which Danish horses are infected and seroconvert due to these two bacteria is unknown. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of B. burgdorferi sensu lato and A. phagocytophilum in Danish horses. Methods: A total of 390 blood samples collected from all major regions of Denmark and with a geographical distribution corresponding to the density of the Danish horse population were analyzed. All samples were examined for the presence of antibodies against B. burgdorferi sensu lato and A. phagocytophilum by the use of the SNAP®4DX ® ELISA test. Results: Overall, 29.0% of the horses were seropositive for B. burgdorferi sensu lato whereas 22.3% were seropositive for A. phagocytophilum. Conclusions: Antibodies against B burgdorferi sensu lato and A. phagocytophilum are commonly found among Danish horses thus showing that Danish horses are frequently infected by these organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is caused by the neurotropic tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). In dogs, this virus may affect the central nervous system (CNS), causing meningoencephalitis, meningomyelitis, radiculitis or any combination of these. Diagnosis of TBE relies on a combination of clinical signs of CNS disease and laboratory findings, including CSF pleocytosis and serum TBEV antibody titers. Exposure to TBEV does not necessarily cause clinical disease, and seroprevalence has been reported as high as 40% in endemic areas. This causes concerns of over-diagnosing TBE in dogs with CNS disease. By examining TBEV antibodies in dogs with and without neurological disease in a TBEV endemic area, this study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic value of TBEV antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in dogs. Eighty-nine dogs were included in the study, 56 with neurological disease and 33 neurologically normal control dogs. A positive TBEV CSF and serum IgG antibody titer (> 126 U/mL) was found in 3/89 dogs (3.4%). A positive serum TBEV antibody titer was found in 11 of the 89 dogs (12.4%). None of the control dogs showed a positive CSF antibody titer, whilst two showed positive serum concentrations. A positive CSF IgG antibody titer supports a clinical diagnosis of TBE in patients with acute onset of CNS disease and may help reduce the risk of over-diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recumbent cows are a diagnostic challenge because of a wide range of differential diagnoses, which include trauma, neurological and metabolic disorders, malnutrition and mineral deficiencies. This case report describes recumbent suckler cows that presented as a herd problem. In addition to weakness due to inanition, Cu and Se deficiencies were considered as possible aetiologies of the recumbency. Furthermore, Trypanosoma (T.) theileri, a blood parasite of unknown importance in Germany, was detected in the blood of some cows. Case presentation: Three recumbent cows were referred to the Clinic for Ruminants and Swine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Leipzig. They were unable to rise and had low body condition scores and rough hair coats. Haematological and serum biochemical analyses showed neutrophilia, electrolyte imbalances, increased activities of muscle and liver enzymes and decreased concentrations of trace elements, especially Copper (Cu) and Selenium (Se). T. theileri was detected in a routine blood smear from one cow. The cows did not respond to an intensive care protocol, which included intravenous fluids and electrolytes, mineral substitution, non-steroidal anti-inflammatories and antibiotics, and were therefore euthanized or died. Postmortem examination showed cachexia, subcutaneous and scleral oedema and muscular dystrophy, especially in the hind limbs. Follow-up examination of the herd of origin produced similar findings including the detection of T. theileri in a large proportion of the herd. Ration analysis revealed considerable undersupply of several nutrients. Conclusions: Based on all findings, an aetiological diagnosis of trace mineral and nutrient deficiency with possible involvement of T. theileri was made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: General knowledge on climate change effects and adaptation strategies has increased significantly in recent years. However, there is still a substantial information gap regarding the influence of climate change on infectious diseases and how these diseases should be identified. From a One Health perspective, zoonotic infections are of particular concern. The climate in Northern regions is changing faster than the global average. This study sought to identify climate-sensitive infectious diseases (CSIs) of relevance for humans and/or animals living in Northern regions. Inclusion criteria for CSIs were constructed using expert assessments. Based on these principles, 37 potential CSIs relevant for Northern regions were identified. A systematic literature search was performed in three databases using an explicit stepwise approach to determine whether the literature supports selection of these 37 potential CSIs. Results: In total, 1275 nominated abstracts were read and categorised using predefined criteria. Results showed that arthropod vector-borne diseases in particular are recognised as having potential to expand their distribution towards Northern latitudes and that tick-borne encephalitis and borreliosis, midge-borne bluetongue and the parasitic infection fasciolosis can be classified as climate-sensitive. Many of the other potential CSIs considered are affected by extreme weather events, but could not be clearly classified as climate-sensitive. An additional literature search comparing awareness of climate influences on potential CSIs between 1997–2006 and 2007–2016 showed an increase in the number of papers mentioning effects of climate change. Conclusions: The four CSIs identified in this study could be targeted in a systematic surveillance programme in Northern regions. It is evident that climate change can affect the epidemiology and geographical range of many infectious diseases, but there were difficulties in identifying additional CSIs, most likely because other factors may be of equal or greater importance. However, climate-ecological dynamics are constantly under change, and therefore diseases may fall in or out of the climate-sensitive definition over time. There is increasing awareness in the literature of the effects of climate change on infectious diseases over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In dogs with canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (CME), respiratory signs are uncommon and clinical and radiographic signs of interstitial pneumonia are poorly described. However, in human monocytic ehrlichiosis, respiratory signs are common and signs of interstitial pneumonia are well known. Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is classified based on the underlying disease and its treatment is aimed at reducing the clinical signs and, if possible, addressing the primary disease process. PH is often irreversible, but can be reversible if it is secondary to a treatable underlying etiology. CME is currently not generally recognized as one of the possible diseases leading to interstitial pneumonia and secondary PH in dogs. Only one case of PH associated with CME has been reported worldwide. Case presentation: A seven-year-old, male intact, mixed breed dog was presented with 2 weeks history of lethargy and dyspnea. The dog previously lived in the Cape Verdean islands. Physical examination showed signs of right-sided congestive heart failure and poor peripheral perfusion. Thoracic radiography showed moderate right-sided cardiomegaly with dilation of the main pulmonary artery and a mild diffuse interstitial lung pattern with peribronchial cuffing. Echocardiography showed severe pulmonary hypertension with an estimated pressure gradient of 136 mm Hg. On arterial blood gas analysis, severe hypoxemia was found and complete blood count revealed moderate regenerative anemia and severe thrombocytopenia. A severe gamma hyperglobulinemia was also documented. Serology for Ehrlichia canis was highly positive. Treatment with oxygen supplementation, a typed packed red blood cell transfusion and medical therapy with doxycycline, pimobendan and sildenafil was initiated and the dog improved clinically. Approximately 2 weeks later, there was complete resolution of all clinical signs and marked improvement of the PH. Conclusion: This report illustrates that CME might be associated with significant pulmonary disease and should be considered as a possible differential diagnosis in dogs presenting with dyspnea and secondary pulmonary hypertension, especially in dogs that have been in endemic areas. This is important because CME is a treatable disease and its secondary lung and cardiac manifestations may be completely reversible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A previously splenectomized dog from Estonia was presented with a sudden lack of appetite and discoloration of the urine. Despite supportive therapy, its condition deteriorated dramatically during 1 day. Severe thrombocytopenia and high numbers of protozoan hemoparasites were evident in blood smears, and the hematocrit dropped from 46 to 33 %. The dog was euthanized before specific antibabesial treatment was initiated. Blood samples from the dog and from two other dogs in the same household tested positive for Babesia using molecular methods, and the sequences of partial 18S rRNA gene confirmed the causative species as Babesia canis canis. The risk of severe, rapidly progressing babesiosis in splenectomized dogs merits awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Leishmania spp. are zoonotic protozoans that infect humans and other mammals such as dogs. The most significant causative species in dogs is L. infantum. In dogs, leishmaniosis is a potentially progressive, chronic disease with varying clinical outcomes. Autochthonous cases of canine leishmaniosis have not previously been reported in the Nordic countries. Results In this report we describe the first diagnosed autochthonous cases of canine leishmaniosis in Finland, in which transmission via a suitable arthropod vector was absent. Two Finnish boxers that had never been in endemic areas of Leishmania spp., had never received blood transfusions, nor were infested by ectoparasites were diagnosed with leishmaniosis. Another dog was found with elevated Leishmania antibodies. A fourth boxer dog that had been in Spain was considered to be the source of these infections. Transmission occurred through biting wounds and semen, however, transplacental infection in one of the dogs could not be ruled out. Two of the infected dogs developed a serious disease and were euthanized and sent for necropsy. The first one suffered from membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis and the second one had a chronic systemic disease. Leishmania sp. was detected from tissues by PCR and/or IHC in both dogs. The third infected dog was serologically positive for Leishmania sp. but remained free of clinical signs. Conclusions This case report shows that imported Leishmania-infected dogs may pose a risk for domestic dogs, even without suitable local arthropod vectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background There are only a few studies reporting the role of nitric oxide metabolites for controlling macrophage intracellular parasitism, and these are controversial. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the lymph nodes and spleen of dogs affected by visceral leishmaniasis through immunohistochemistry and to determine its correlation with tissue parasite burden and serum interferon (IFN)-γ levels. Twenty-eight dogs were selected and assigned to one of two groups, symptomatic (n = 18) and asymptomatic (n = 10), according to clinical status and laboratory evaluation. A negative control group (n = 6) from a non-endemic region for visceral leishmaniasis was included as well. Results Parasite density (amastigotes/mm2) was similar between clinical groups in the lymph nodes (P = 0.2401) and spleen (P = 0.8869). The density of iNOS+ cells was higher in infected dogs compared to controls (P < 0.05), without a significant difference in lymph node (P = 0.3257) and spleen (P = 0.5940) densities between symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs. A positive correlation was found between the number of iNOS+ cells in lymph nodes and interferon-γ levels (r = 0.3776; P = 0.0303), and there was a negative correlation between parasites and iNOS+ cell densities both in lymph nodes (r = -0.5341; P = 0.0034) and spleen (r = -0.4669; P = 0.0329). Conclusion The negative correlation observed between tissue parasitism and the expression of iNOS may be a reflection of NO acting on the control of parasites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A severe regenerative anemia was detected in a 12-week-old mixed breed puppy in Sweden. A small protozoan parasite was observed in erythrocytes on a blood smear. It was initially suspected to be Babesia gibsoni based on its size and because B. gibsoni was previously recorded in Sweden. Surprisingly, specific polymerase chain reaction analysis identified the protozoan as Theileria annae. T. annae is endemic in Northwest Spain, is very uncommonly reported elsewhere and has never been recorded in Scandinavia. T. annae has been identified in dogs used for dog fighting, and it is thought to be transmitted by dog bites. This puppy was a mixed pit bull terrier. Pit bull terriers are sometimes used for dog fighting. T. annae has been reported to be transmitted vertically, and in light of the puppy's age, this transmission was suspected in the present case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative, obligate intracellular tick-transmitted bacterium that replicates in neutrophils. It causes tick-borne fever (TBF) in sheep and cattle, but also elicits febrile disease in humans as well as in other domestic animals such as dogs, horses, and cats. Although increasingly recognized in Europe, the first laboratory-confirmed case of TBF in cattle from Germany has been published only recently. We here present the unusual case of an intrauterine transmission of A. phagocytophilum in a calf from northern Germany. To our knowledge, this is the first report of such an event occurring under field conditions in cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bacterium Coxiella burnetii has been detected in the fetal membranes, birth fluids and vaginal mucus, as well as in the milk and other excretions of several domestic mammals. The finding of C. burnetii in association with abortion, parturition and in the postpartum period has led to the hypothesis that C. burnetii causes a range of reproductive diseases. This review critically evaluates the scientific basis for this hypothesis in domestic mammals. The review demonstrates a solid evidence for the association between C. burnetii infection and sporadic cases of abortion, premature delivery, stillbirth and weak offspring in cattle, sheep and goats. C. burnetii induced in-herd epidemics of this complete expression of reproductive failure have been reported for sheep and goats, but not for cattle. The single entities occur only as part of the complex and not as single events such as generally increased stillbirth rate. Studies show that C. burnetii initially infects the placenta and that subsequent spread to the fetus may occur either haematogenous or by the amniotic-oral route. The consequences for the equine, porcine, canine and feline conceptus remains to the elucidated but that infection of the conceptus may occur is documented for most species. There is no solid evidence to support a hypothesis of C. burnetii causing disorders such as subfertility, endometritis/metritis, or retained fetal membranes in any kind of domestic animal species. There is a strong need to validate non-pathology based methods such as polymerase chain reaction for their use in diagnostic and research in relation to establishing C. burnetii as the cause of abortion and to adapt an appropriate study design and include adequate control animals when linking epidemiological findings to C. burnetii or when evaluating effects of vaccination in production herds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The bacterium Coxiella burnetii has been detected in the fetal membranes, birth fluids and vaginal mucus, as well as in the milk and other excretions of several domestic mammals. The finding of C. burnetii in association with abortion, parturition and in the postpartum period has led to the hypothesis that C. burnetii causes a range of reproductive diseases. This review critically evaluates the scientific basis for this hypothesis in domestic mammals. The review demonstrates a solid evidence for the association between C. burnetii infection and sporadic cases of abortion, premature delivery, stillbirth and weak offspring in cattle, sheep and goats. C. burnetii induced in-herd epidemics of this complete expression of reproductive failure have been reported for sheep and goats, but not for cattle. The single entities occur only as part of the complex and not as single events such as generally increased stillbirth rate. Studies show that C. burnetii initially infects the placenta and that subsequent spread to the fetus may occur either haematogenous or by the amniotic-oral route. The consequences for the equine, porcine, canine and feline conceptus remains to the elucidated but that infection of the conceptus may occur is documented for most species. There is no solid evidence to support a hypothesis of C. burnetii causing disorders such as subfertility, endometritis/metritis, or retained fetal membranes in any kind of domestic animal species. There is a strong need to validate non-pathology based methods such as polymerase chain reaction for their use in diagnostic and research in relation to establishing C. burnetii as the cause of abortion and to adapt an appropriate study design and include adequate control animals when linking epidemiological findings to C. burnetii or when evaluating effects of vaccination in production herds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exotic reptiles originating from the wild can be carriers of many different pathogens and some of them can infect humans. Reptiles imported into Slovenia from 2000 to 2005, specimens of native species taken from the wild and captive bred species were investigated. A total of 949 reptiles (55 snakes, 331 lizards and 563 turtles), belonging to 68 different species, were examined for the presence of endoparasites and ectoparasites. Twelve different groups (Nematoda (5), Trematoda (1), Acanthocephala (1), Pentastomida (1) and Protozoa (4)) of endoparasites were determined in 26 (47.3%) of 55 examined snakes. In snakes two different species of ectoparasites were also found. Among the tested lizards eighteen different groups (Nematoda (8), Cestoda (1), Trematoda (1), Acanthocephala (1), Pentastomida (1) and Protozoa (6)) of endoparasites in 252 (76.1%) of 331 examined animals were found. One Trombiculid ectoparasite was determined. In 563 of examined turtles eight different groups (Nematoda (4), Cestoda (1), Trematoda (1) and Protozoa (2)) of endoparasites were determined in 498 (88.5%) animals. In examined turtles three different species of ectoparasites were seen. The established prevalence of various parasites in reptiles used as pet animals indicates the need for examination on specific pathogens prior to introduction to owners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many arctic mammals are adapted to live year-round in extreme environments with low winter temperatures and great seasonal variations in key variables (e.g. sunlight, food, temperature, moisture). The interaction between hosts and pathogens in high northern latitudes is not very well understood with respect to intra-annual cycles (seasons). The annual cycles of interacting pathogen and host biology is regulated in part by highly synchronized temperature and photoperiod changes during seasonal transitions (e.g., freezeup and breakup). With a warming climate, only one of these key biological cues will undergo drastic changes, while the other will remain fixed. This uncoupling can theoretically have drastic consequences on host-pathogen interactions. These poorly understood cues together with a changing climate by itself will challenge host populations that are adapted to pathogens under the historic and current climate regime. We will review adaptations of both host and pathogens to the extreme conditions at high latitudes and explore some potential consequences of rapid changes in the Arctic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aim of the present study was to investigate biochemical and oxidative stress responses to experimental F. tularensis infection in European brown hares, an important source of human tularemia infections. Methods: For these purposes we compared the development of an array of biochemical parameters measured in blood plasma using standard procedures of dry chemistry as well as electrochemical devices following a subcutaneous infection with a wild Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica strain (a single dose of 2.6 × 109 CFU pro toto). Results: Subcutaneous inoculation of a single dose with 2.6 × 109 colony forming units of a wild F. tularensis strain pro toto resulted in the death of two out of five hares. Plasma chemistry profiles were examined on days 2 to 35 post-infection. When compared to controls, the total protein, urea, lactate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were increased, while albumin, glucose and amylase were decreased. Both uric and ascorbic acids and glutathione dropped on day 2 and then increased significantly on days 6 to 12 and 6 to 14 post-inoculation, respectively. There was a two-fold increase in lipid peroxidation on days 4 to 8 post-inoculation. Conclusions: Contrary to all expectations, the present study demonstrates that the European brown hare shows relatively low susceptibility to tularemia. Therefore, the circumstances of tularemia in hares under natural conditions should be further studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An abstract of a paper on ectoparasites of Alpaca (Vicugna pacos) presented at the 22nd Symposium of the Nordic Committee for Veterinary Scientific Cooperation (NKVet) held in Helsinki, Finland from September 7-9, 2008 is presented.

Canine babesiosis is an important worldwide, tick-borne disease caused by hemoprotozoan parasites of the genus Babesia. Babesia gibsoni is the predominant species that causes canine babesiosis in Taipei, Taiwan. It is a small pleomorphic intraerythrocytic parasite that can cause erythrocyte destruction and hemolytic anemia. Efficacy of oral administration of a doxycycline-enrofloxacin-metronidazole combination with and without injections of diminazene diaceturate in the management of naturally occurring canine babesiosis caused by B. gibsoni was evaluated retrospectively. The overall efficacy of this combination of doxycycline-enrofloxacin-metronidazole in conjunction with and without administration of diminazene diaceturate was 85.7% and 83.3%, respectively; with a mean recovery time of 24.2 and 23.5 days, respectively. Concomitant use of intramuscular diminazene diaceturate may not improve the efficacy of a doxycycline-enrofloxacin-metronidazole combination in management of canine babesiosis caused by B. gibsoni. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study discussing the existence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in cows and sheep in north Norway. It reports that the infection is transmitted by Ixodes ricinus tick , and gives an overview of the symptoms and problems associated with it. It also gives an overview of the research done on cows of a farm which showed high fever symptom of the infection, and discusses the findings of diagnostic tests performed on them.

The dog is the main reservoir of Leishmania infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in humans in Southern Europe. In order to identify the risk of dogs from a Leishmania non-endemic area traveling to a Leishmania-endemic area becoming infected and the risk of transmitting infection to humans in non-endemic areas an investigation was performed, in which the results of a questionnaire were combined with the results of a serologic survey. The questionnaire was sent to 1478 at random chosen families in the Netherlands. Of the 59.0% responders 28.0% had one or more dogs and 4.8% of these dogs had visited Southern Europe during the summer period of that year. On a total population of 1,200,000 dogs in the Netherlands, this means that each year some 58,000 dogs are at risk of being exposed to a Leishmania infection in Southern Europe. During the period 1990-1992 blood was collected for serology in 1911 dogs presented to the Utrecht University Clinic because of clinical problems not related to leishmaniasis, of which 434 had been in Southern Europe in the foregoing years. None was serologically positive. From these data it can be deduced that the highest chance to obtain leishmaniasis during a vacation in Southern Europe is mathematically less than 1/434 or less than 0.23%. Serology was also performed during the period 1989-1993 in 597 dogs that had been in Southern Europe and were suspected of leishmaniasis. Titers were positive in 145 of these samples. Sixty-four of these dogs were born in the Mediterranean and had been imported into the Netherlands. Excluding these imported dogs, it was calculated that at least 0.027% of the 58,000 dogs yearly taken to Southern Europe during holidays become infected with Leishmania. In order to establish the risk of disease transmission for people in close contact with an infected dog, serum samples of owners and house mates of 37 dogs with leishmaniasis were tested. All 112 sera tested negative. It was concluded that the risk to get leishmaniasis was between 0.027% and 0.23% for the dog when taken to Southern Europe during vacation, and that the risk for owners in non-endemic areas to get leishmaniasis from an infected dog is minimal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica is the property of BioMed Central and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica is the property of BioMed Central and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)