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Environmental education has the potential to help reduce negative human–wildlife interactions by increasing positive attitudes toward wildlife and providing participants with knowledge and skills that can help mitigate conflict situations and promote safety. To promote positive human–wildlife relationships, effective programs could be implemented widely in areas near remote wildlife reserves and protected areas. We created and evaluated a new environmental education program for 10‐ to 13‐year‐old students in rural schools in India where human–wildlife conflicts with large mammals frequently occur. Between July 2019 and March 2020, we tested the program at 129 schools, reaching 4331 students. The program, which was iteratively designed to fit the local context, is both cost‐effective and scalable. We found that participation in the program resulted in a significant positive increase in local environmental knowledge, in knowledge of safe behaviors, and in some measures of environmental attitudes. This paper reports on the lessons learned while creating this program that may help other organizations interested in using environmental education in regions where negative human–wildlife interactions frequently occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the studies of algae in the Wayanad district, a notable diversity of desmids observed in the Karapuzha dam, Kerala, India. Karapuzha Dam is 700 to 2061 metres above sea level and is a part of Western Ghats. Thirty‐nine taxa of desmids were identified from Karapuzha Dam of Wayanad district from June 2019 to May 2020. The collection comprises ten genera of 39 desmids, including 24 species of Cosmarium, 5 Staurastrum, 2 Closterium, 2 Euastrum, 1 Gonatozygon, 1 Triplastrum, 1 Penium, 1 Spondylosium, 1 Micrasterias and 1 Arthrodesmus. Among these, Cosmarium regnesi var. montanum is new to India, 8 taxa are new to Kerala and 2 taxa are new to South India. Some rare and high altitude distributed species are found in the study. This desmid diversity relates to the oligotrophic nature of the dam. This paper is a pioneer attempt to document the desmid flora of Karapuzha Dam, Kerala. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rock–water interactions and chemical weathering are critical factors that determine the quality and quantity of solute transport in river catchments. However, most studies in this field have been limited to temperate regions and data from the tropics and subtropics are scarce, particularly for small rivers that are more responsive to environmental and climate changes. In this study, we investigated chemical weathering, its causal mechanisms and controlling factors that determine changes in the quality and quantity of solutes in two small, tropical mountainous rivers‐the west‐flowing Thuthapuzha river and the east‐flowing Bhavani river‐that drain through contrasting climate and geologic gradients across the southern part of the Western Ghats, in India. This region is an elevated passive continental margin and an ecologically sensitive area. Hydrochemical analysis of river water revealed that the cationic and anionic concentrations in the samples are in descending order of importance Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+ and HCO3− > Cl− > SO42−. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that geogenic factors (geology, chemical weathering and leaching/erosion) have a significant role in determining the hydrochemical characteristics of the rivers. To discriminate the relative contributions of silicate weathering in the river basins, we performed a detailed analysis of the major ion ratios along with forward and inverse modelling. The weathering index computed from the molecular ratio of cations and silica concentrations suggested that silicate weathering leads to kaolinite formation in the soil profile. The carbon dioxide consumption rate (CCR) estimated for the Thuthapuzha river, which is draining the humid western flank of the Western Ghats, was 2.18 × 105 mol·km−2 year−1, whereas the Upper Bhavani river, which is draining the semi‐arid area of the Western Ghats was 1.39 × 105 mol·km−2 year−1. Our study highlights the interplay of climatic factors and the geologic characteristics of the terrain that significantly influence the nature and characteristics of solute transport through the rivers in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

. This paper aims at proposing efficient vegetation sampling strategies. It describes how the estimation of species richness and diversity of moist evergreen forest is affected by (1) sampling design (simple random sampling, random cluster sampling, systematic cluster sampling, stratified cluster sampling); (2) choice of species richness estimators (number of observed species vs. non-parametric estimators) and (3) choice of diversity index (Simpson vs. Shannon). Two sites are studied: a 28-ha area situated in the Western Ghats of India and a 25-ha area located at Pasoh in Peninsular Malaysia. The results show that: (1) whatever the sampling strategy, estimates of species richness depend on sample size in these very diverse forest ecosystems which contain many rare species; (2) Simpson's diversity index reaches a stable value at low sample sizes while Shannon's index is affected more by the addition of rare species with increasing sample size; (3) cluster sampling strategies provide a good compromise between cost and statistical efficiency; (4) 300 - 400 sample trees grouped in small clusters (10-50 individuals) are enough to obtain unbiased and precise estimates of Simpson's index; (5) the local topography of the Western Ghats has a major influence on forest composition, the steep slopes being richer and more diverse than the ridges and gentle slopes; (6) stratified cluster sampling is thus an interesting alternative to systematic cluster sampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study about the studies on grasslands of the Western Ghats in India. This paper focuses on the ecological conditions, topography, climate, soil and vegetation in this area covering the period from June 1953 to December 1955. Various regions were surveyed giving the phytosociological data of the grasslands in Bombay, Khandala, and Lonavla. The methods applied in this experiment are described. Behavioral succession of vegetation were studied related to the biotic factors. Results of the study are discussed in brief.

Desiccation-tolerant vascular (DT) plants are predominant occupants of rock outcrops in tropical regions. Though rock outcrops are common landscapes in the Western Ghats (WG), a biodiversity hotspot in India, knowledge of DT plants in the region is poor. This study provides an overview of Indian DT vascular plants, emphasizing the WG, and includes an inventory of species with their habitat preferences. Outcrop species were scrutinized for their DT properties by seasonal field observations, followed by relative water content estimation protocols. The inventory revealed 62 DT species, many more than the earlier known nine species. Nine genera of DT plants are reported as new also in a global perspective, and Tripogon capillatus represent the first record of an epiphytic DT angiosperm. We also provide the first field observation-based proof of DT properties of the gesneriad Corallodiscus lanuginosus. Of the 62 species, 16 are Indian endemic, and 12 are exclusive to Western Ghat outcrops, highlighting WG's importance as a global DT hotspot. In addition to rock outcrops, partially shaded sites in forests are crucial habitats for DT species. This pioneering inventory addresses India's need for more knowledge on DT plants and opens new research avenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest slashing and burning is a key characteristic of shifting cultivation. Its intensification is a major anthropogenic cause of deforestation, as it reduces forest resilience. We analyzed the reforestation process in the regenerating shifting cultivation lands in India's Western Ghats, a megadiversity hotspot. An actinorhizal shrub, Elaeagnus conferta, was associated with the regenerating thickets' higher density and higher species diversity. Its presence increased the thicket density by >2.8‐fold and the species diversity by >2.5‐fold; these thickets showed >1.5‐fold higher Shannon's diversity index than those without it. Moreover, the thickets containing E. conferta showed >7‐fold more multi‐species seedlings. Liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry analysis showed that rhizosphere soils of E. conferta containing thickets had >10‐fold higher gibberellic acid (GA3) concentrations than the E. conferta‐deplete thickets. When E. conferta was potted separately, its root nodules, roots, and rhizosphere soil showed about 3.6, 2.0, and 0.4 μg/g GA3, respectively. These E. conferta root and rhizosphere soil GA3 concentrations were >10‐fold higher than those shown by other co‐occurring species. These elevated GA3 levels were likely due to E. conferta's association with the rhizosymbiont Frankia elaeagni. Frankia elaeagni's GA3 synthesis may promote plant recruitment by stimulating seed germination and explain why we measured higher seedling density and plant diversity in E. conferta containing thickets. We hypothesize that E. conferta plays a two‐stage pioneering role in the reforestation process by providing GA3 to facilitate seed germination and providing nitrogen for the developing plantlets. We recommend the inclusion of E. conferta in Western Ghats' reforestation programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ardisia anamalaiana is a new species described from Anamalai Hills, the southern Western Ghats of India. The new species is morphologically similar to A. gardneri C.B.Clarke, but differs in its leaves, petiole, inflorescence, bract, flower and pedicel. Ardisia anamalaiana is described and illustrated in detail. Morphological comparison between the new species and related taxa, a key to the genus Ardisia from the Western Ghats, colour photographs and conservation status is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the detailed geochemical studies of 184 soil samples from Periyar River Basin (PRB), a tropical monsoon dominated river basin (5398 km2) in the southern western Ghats (WGs) of India, a baseline reference data is established. The soils are mildly acidic with sandy loam and silt loam facies in non‐monsoon to sandy loam and sandy clay loam in monsoon. The mean metal concentrations follow the upper continental crust and world shale values. The Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) shows unpolluted to moderately polluted category, except for Cu, Zn, and Ba, while Enrichment Factor (EF) indicates no to minor enrichment for all elements. Contamination factor (Cf) indicates low to considerable contamination for V, Rb, Sr, Ni, and low to very high contamination for Cu, Zn, and Ba. Three significant components are extracted by Principal Component Analysis (PCA), explaining 78.09% and 74.10% of the total variance for monsoon and non‐monsoon seasons. Ti, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, V, Cr, Ni, Sr, and Ba exhibited common source of origin while anthropogenic origin is identified for Zn and Cu. The study will provide valuable information into the pedological characteristics of WGs river basins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nematode parasites of the family Anisakidae infect definitive hosts, such as fish‐eating birds and mammals, through primary intermediate hosts like copepods and secondary intermediate hosts like fishes. However, consumption of raw or undercooked fish can lead to nematode infection called anisakidosis in humans. We observed the presence of nematode infection in hillstream loaches of families Cobitidae and Nemacheilidae available for human consumption in the local markets in the northern parts of Western Ghats, India. Scanning electron micrograph and genetic identification employing mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II, identified the nematode to the genus Contracaecum. Histology of infected host revealed the presence of the parasite in muscles. Antioxidant enzyme analysis of host liver suggested that infection leads to oxidative stress in the fish. We suspect that a gradual increase in parasite infection of the loaches in the last decade could be attributed to various anthropogenic stressors that are altering riverine habitats. Since loaches are consumed by tribal people who often prepare the fish without degutting and possibly undercooked, there is a potential threat of human infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental heterogeneity is considered as one of the main drivers of habitat specialization and niche evolution among tropical plant lineages, and local‐scale habitat specialization promotes niche differentiation among sister taxa. In this study, we examined the degree to which habitat specialization leads to niche differentiation across the distribution range of a given species using five species of the family Myristicaceae native to Western Ghats, India, as an example. In the Western Ghats, Myristicaceae species occur in two main habitat types, namely, freshwater swamps (flooded habitat) and terra firme forest (non‐flooded habitat), distributed across a seasonal flooding gradient. First, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of flooded habitat specialization among global and Western Ghats Myristicaceae by mapping flooded habitat association and traits conferring flood tolerance (e.g., aerial roots) on a dated phylogeny. Then, we investigated climatic niche differences among lineages occupying flooded and terra firme habitats using occurrence data and environmental variables. Our analysis revealed swampy habitat occurrence as the probable ancestral state with subsequent speciation events leading to adaptation to non‐swampy habitats. We also show that traits conferring flood tolerance have evolved independently several times during the evolution of Myristicaceae. Furthermore, phylogenetically distantly related Myristicaceae taxa occupying different habitats (flooded and terra firme habitat) in Western Ghats show significant niche divergence. Overall, the repeated gain of swampy habitat specialization and associated morphological traits and evidence for habitat‐associated climatic niche divergence among Myristicaceae taxa suggest that seasonal flooding may have been an important driver of ecological diversification in this primitive plant family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A root parasitic plant species Christisonia rarissima (Orobanchaceae) is described as a new species from the Tamil Nadu parts of outhern Western Ghats, India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a comprehensive analysis on the past and future changes in precipitation extremes and quantifies the relative contributions from its frequency and intensity across India, considering five extremeness levels, denoted by 95th, 99th, 99.9th, 99.95th, and 99.97th percentile. Gridded station‐based observations from the historical period (1951–2020) and simulations from 14 General Circulation Models for the future (2021–2100), participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) are considered. Apart from an overall increasing pattern of precipitation extremes, it is noticed that the contribution of frequency dominates over intensity. Specifically, the frequency of 99th percentile daily rainfall is projected to increase approximately by two‐ (SSP245) to three‐ (SSP585) times in future. We also proposed a new zoning of entire Indian mainland, identified as six Homogeneous Precipitation Zones (HPZs). HPZ‐wise analysis reveals that the increase in frequency dominates over intensity for all the HPZs with a varying extent. For instance, increase in frequency is more for the climatologically high‐precipitation zones (HPZ‐3: Western Ghats, and HPZ‐6: North‐east India), whereas increase in intensity is more for the low‐precipitation zones (HPZ‐1: North‐west India, and HPZ‐4: Peninsular India). The degree of increase gets even more pronounced under the worst scenario SSP585, indicating a potential impact of anthropogenic activities on changing precipitation extremes. Findings of this study should be accounted in the climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies for future. Plain Language Summary: There are different characteristics of extreme precipitation, such as how frequent they occur, its intensity. Owing to change in climate, these characteristics are changing as time passes, as well as from one location to another location. How has it been changed in the past and how will it be changing in future? Is there any link with the nature of rainfall in a region? These are the focus of this study. We considered entire Indian mainland as our study domain that spans across a wide range of climatology. Overall, it is noted that both frequency and intensity are increasing and it is going to increase further in future. Moreover, frequency is increasing more rapidly than intensity. However, this finding varies from region to region. The regions that receive high precipitation, in general, may experience maximum increase in frequency (northeast and western ghats region in India), whereas the regions with relatively low precipitation may experience maximum increase in intensity (southern peninsular India). Such findings are expected to be useful in many applications related to climate change impacts on water sector. Key Points: Both frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation are increasing with spatial variation and it is going to increase further in futureIn general, change in the characteristics of precipitation extremes is dominated by increase in frequency rather than intensityHigh precipitation regions experience an increase in frequency and low precipitation regions experience an increase in intensity [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The life cycle and the large‐scale factors driving extreme heavy rainfall events over the south west coast of India are studied. The extreme rainfall events are linked to the development of monsoon depressions and the associated large‐scale dynamics. Strengthening of these parameters intensifies the monsoon low‐level circulation over the Arabian Sea and the west coast via steepened meridional pressure gradient. The intensification of the low‐level jet stream speed and its extension in the vertical causes an increase in the humidity flux in the lower and midtroposphere. The consequent ascending motion is from the midtroposphere to the upper troposphere, resulting in the formation of deep convective cloud clusters over the west coast and eastern parts of the Arabian Sea. This results in the incidence of extreme heavy rainfall over the south west coast of India. It is observed that during days of extreme rainfall, the direction of wind in the lower troposphere tends to be almost perpendicular to the Western Ghats favouring a strong orographic lift. The extreme rainfall events over the south west coast do not necessarily occur during the active cycle of monsoon intraseasonal oscillation, but are linked to the north westwards propagating monsoon depressions. We show that the signatures of extreme rainfall can be observed in several meteorological variables developing over different parts of the monsoon region. A synergistic analysis of these variables may help in the accurate and timely prediction of these events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A new species, Glycosmis albicarpa Sujana & Vadhyar from Kanyakumari wildlife sanctuary of southern Western Ghats, India is described and illustrated. It differs from all other species of Glycosmis by its short and broadly lanceolate leaves, short (3–5 mm long) peduncles, clawed petals and broadly ovoid white fruits. The description is complemented with color photographs, micromorphology of pollen and seed under SEM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical freshwater eels (Anguilla bengalensis and Anguilla bicolor) contribute a major share of the world's wild‐caught eel production, having become the next major target owing to the declines in availability of both Anguilla japonica and Anguilla anguilla, species that have traditionally contributed to eel aquaculture and trade.Although both A. bengalensis and A. bicolor are assessed as Near Threatened on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List, these assessments are primarily based on anecdotal information and local knowledge on population declines.Demographics and exploitation levels of A. bengalensis and A. bicolor were determined from small coastal river systems, and their adjoining aquascapes in the Western Ghats hotspot of southern peninsular India, and the value of these data for future conservation planning discussed.The computed estimates of annual catch data for freshwater eels from the study region are between 0.17 (A. bicolor) to 0.30 t (A. bengalensis). Virtual population analysis of exploitation showed a drastic decline (in number) in the length groups >45 cm for both species, suggesting that they were less likely to attain their asymptotic length in the region.Current exploitation rates of A. bengalensis are unsustainable, and those for A. bicolor are almost close to reaching this level. Exploitation of all life stages from yellow eels to adults (29–171 cm) is likely to cause recruitment failure and significant mortality of spawning individuals of both species.An integrative conservation approach, including raising awareness (leading to voluntary restrictions), fishing closures in reservoirs, village‐level quotas, and regular monitoring of populations, will ensure a sustainable future for the freshwater eel species in the Western Ghats hotspot, and elsewhere in the tropics where these species are exploited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Old world fruit bats are important seed dispersers of forest plants as well as of commercial fruit crops. Bats scatter seeds across landscapes and also aggregate (clump) seeds under feeding and roosting trees. In agroforestry landscapes, bat frugivory and seed dispersal can result in simultaneous accrual of socio‐economic benefits and costs to humans, which may be further affected by human health risks from zoonotic spillover through human–bat interactions. In our study, we used an integrated approach to assess socio‐economic benefits (from seed dispersal) and costs (from frugivory) from bats, in relation to latent zoonotic risk. We carried out the study in five agroforestry landscapes along India's Western Ghats, for selected commercial fruit crops (cashew, areca, banana and other pulpy/fleshy fruits). Specifically, we hypothesized that people's perceptions of benefits from fruit bats would be correlated with measured extents of clumped seed dispersal in fruit plantations. We conducted ecological studies to investigate the effects of fruit crop type and plantation attributes on clump‐dispersal, and in turn, on perceived 'net benefits' assessed from interviews with plantation‐associated people. We then explored associations between perceived socio‐economic net benefits and spatial data on disease risk factors for fruit bat‐linked henipavirus transmission. We found that the extent of bat‐mediated clump‐dispersal was highest for cashew, especially in isolated plantations. People's perceptions of benefits from fruit bats matched the measured extents of clump‐dispersal of cashew and areca. These benefits came with some costs from scatter‐dispersal and damage to other fleshy fruits from frugivory by bats. Interestingly, we did not detect tradeoffs between perceived net benefits from bats and disease risk, which is of significance for bat conservation and its implications for human well‐being. Overall, our results highlight that bat‐mediated seed dispersal needs to be sustained as an important ecosystem service, despite some latent zoonotic risk, in the Anthropocene [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The variability of soil qualities across the coffee‐growing areas and consequences of conversion of forest to coffee plantations on soil qualities and sustainability in the Western Ghats of South India are evaluated in this study by assessing and studying the six representative pedons selected from Chikmagalur district in Karnataka and Wayanad and Idukki districts of Kerala taking into consideration of the agro‐ecological zones, they belong. Sixty sites were located for monitoring soil quality, of which 46 sites were located in coffee plantations of all agro‐climates and 14 in forests adjacent to coffee plantations in similar setting. Soil quality indicators were selected by carrying out principal component analysis (PCA) on measured soil attributes, which provided 4 PCs in both land uses with eigen values > 1 and explaining at least 5 per cent variance in data set. The indicators for coffee land use were pH, exch. Al and CEC and for forest land use, organic carbon, pH and exch. Al. These indicators were transformed into scores following linear scoring method and soil quality index was determined, on a scale of 0–1, using the weighting factors obtained from PCA. Soil quality index was high (0.836) for natural forest land use, while it was medium (0.634) for coffee land use. Results indicated that organic carbon, pH and exch. Al are the most powerful indicators of soil quality. Proper management of soil acidity in coffee plantations due to liming, pooling back of nutrients, fertilization effect and other anthropogenic interventions in them have helped in maintaining a near equal soil quality to that of natural forest, which can be made sustainable by adopting effective plantation management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim We addressed the roles of environmental filtering, historical biogeography and evolutionary niche conservatism on the phylogenetic structure of tropical tree communities with the following questions. (1) What is the impact of mesoclimatic gradients and dispersal limitation on phylogenetic turnover and species turnover? (2) How does phylogenetic turnover between continents compare in intensity with the turnover driven by climatic gradients at a regional scale? (3) Are independent phylogenetic reconstructions of the mesoclimatic niche of clades congruent between continents? Location Panama Canal Watershed and Western Ghats (India), two anciently divergent biogeographic contexts but with comparable rainfall gradients. Methods Using floristic data for 50 1-ha plots in each region, independent measures of phylogenetic turnover (ΠST) and species turnover (Jaccard) between plots were regressed on geographic and ecological distances. Mesoclimatic niches were reconstructed for each node of the phylogeny and compared between the two continents. Results (1) The phylogenetic turnover within each region is best explained by mesoclimatic differences (environmental filtering), while species turnover depends both on mesoclimatic differences and geographic distances (dispersal limitation). (2) The phylogenetic turnover between continents (ΠST = 0.009) is comparable to that caused by mesoclimatic gradients within regions (ΠST = 0.010) and both effects seem cumulative. (3) Independent phylogenetic reconstructions of the mesoclimatic niches were strongly correlated between the two continents ( r = 0.61), despite the absence of shared species. Main conclusions Our results demonstrate a world-wide deep phylogenetic signal for mesoclimatic niche within a biome, indicating that positive phylogenetic turnover at a regional scale reflects environmental filtering in plant communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY Unique environmental conditions in the Indian subcontinent create a diverse biogeographic region harboring with exceptional endemic biodiversity. Diatom studies in this region started in the early nineteenth century, with descriptions of many new species. H. P. Gandhi described nearly 300 new taxa beginning in 1952. The focus of this paper is to reconsider, typify and provide biogeographic notes on the Gomphonema species described by Gandhi from Kolhapur region of Northern Western Ghats. While Gandhi identified 11 taxa including two endemic taxa, we observed eight Gomphonema species from the same material, comprising six endemic and two cosmopolitan species. The morphology of these taxa is examined using both light and scanning electron microscopy and all taxa are compared with similar species. One of the eight species we observed is a new species, Gomphonema tamilensis sp. nov., and a new combination is established, Gomphonema lacusrankaloides comb. nov. Gomphonema tamilensis is similar to G. gandhii described from South India and Gomphocymbella species described from East Africa. Ultrastructural details of Gomphonema species from peninsular India shows morphologically similarities to members of this genus from Himalayan, Madagascar and African species, which could be reflective of sister taxon relationships, and merit further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graham's posthumous publication (Cat. Pl. Bombay, 1839) was completed by Joseph Nimmo, in addition to contributing several new species in it. Croton gibsonianus Nimmo and C. lawianus Nimmo (Euphorbiaceae) were part of this addition, and both were described based on Gibson's collection from adjoining localities in the Western India. As the diagnosis of the latter species was scant, it was subsequently interpreted in different genera viz. Dimorphocalyx, Trigonostemon and Tritaxis. Due to misinterpretation of the protologue and Gibson's Croton collection housed at K, the name C. lawianus was wrongly applied to C. gibsonianus by subsequent authors. This inadvertent application of name is corrected here and referred to the hitherto undescribed new species C. chakrabartyi. Our recent collection of C. gibsonianus has turned out to be a rediscovery after 170 years. The nomenclature, description, photographs, and distribution of C. gibsonianus are provided to avoid further taxonomic ambiguity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asian hornbills are known to forage and breed in fragmented rainforests and agroforestry plantations in human‐modified landscapes adjoining contiguous protected forests. However, the factors influencing year‐round hornbill abundance, demography and tracking of key food resources such as wild fig Ficus fruits in modified habitats and protected forests remain poorly understood. We carried out monthly surveys of two species of high conservation concern, the Vulnerable Great Hornbill (GH, Buceros bicornis) and the endemic Malabar Grey Hornbill (MGH, Ocyceros griseus) for 15 months and monitored ripe fig fruit availability for 12 months along 11 line transects (total length 24 km) in shade‐coffee plantations and adjoining continuous rainforests in a protected area (PA) in the Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats, India. Both hornbill species used plantations and the PA year‐round but distance sampling density estimates were higher in the PA in both nesting (GH by 57%; MGH by 50%) and non‐nesting (GH by 53%; MGH by 144%) seasons. Relative to estimates from 2004 to 2005, mean GH density appeared stable or increasing, whereas MGH had declined by 39% in the PA and by 56% in plantations. Monthly encounter rate of both hornbills tended to be higher in the PA and that of MGH was also positively related to the density of fig trees with ripe fruit. Sex ratios of observed adult birds in the non‐nesting season were relatively even (GH) or slightly female‐biased (MGH), but became male‐biased in both species during the nesting season when females were confined in tree‐cavity nests. We used change in the adult sex ratio of observed birds from the non‐nesting to nesting season to estimate an index of the proportion of adult pairs breeding at any point within the season, providing the first such estimates for any hornbill species. The proportion of breeding pairs was higher in the PA (GH – 56%, MGH – 64%) than in the plantations (GH – 33%, MGH – 30%). Although hornbills use shade‐coffee plantations year‐round, partly due to fig fruit availability, differences in hornbill density and breeding incidence, as assessed from the sex ratios of observed adult birds, indicate that plantations are a sub‐optimal habitat for both species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exploring elevational patterns in species richness and their underlying mechanisms is a major goal in biogeography and community ecology. Reptiles can be powerful model organisms to examine biogeographical patterns. In this study, we examine the elevational patterns of reptile species richness and test a series of hypotheses that may explain them. We sampled reptile communities along a tropical elevational gradient (100–1,500 m a.s.l.) in the Western Ghats of India using time‐constrained visual encounter surveys at each 100‐m elevation zone for 3 years. First, we investigated species richness patterns across elevation and the support of mid‐domain effect and Rapoport's rule. Second, we tested whether a series of bioclimatic (temperature and tree density) and spatial (mid‐domain effect and area) hypotheses explained species richness. We used linear regression and AICc to compare competing models for all reptiles, and each of the subgroups: snakes, lizards, and Western Ghats' endemics. Overall reptile richness and lizard richness both displayed linear declines with elevation, which was best explained by temperature. Snake richness and endemic species richness did not systematically vary across elevation, and none of the potential hypotheses explained variation in them. This is the first standardized sampling of reptiles along an elevational gradient in the Western Ghats, and our results agree with the global view that temperature is the primary driver of ectotherm species richness. By establishing strong reptile diversity–temperature associations across elevation, our study also has implications for the impact of future climate change on range‐restricted species in the Western Ghats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Western Ghats of peninsular India is a highly sensitive and threatened ecoregion of exceptional freshwater ichthyodiversity. The present study investigated the growth, mortality and stock characteristics of Hypselobarbus thomassi, an endemic cyprinid fish from the Parappar Reservoir of Western Ghats, on the basis of the length‐frequency data collected during the period from 2009 to 2011. The growth parameters of this species were estimated using the FiSAT program, and the asymptotic length (L∞) and growth constant (K) being 476.79 mm and 0.39 year−1, respectively. The age at zero length (t0) was calculated as −0.0485 year−1. The longevity (tmax) and growth performance index (ϕ) were reported as 7.69 years and 2.95. The estimated total mortality (Z), natural mortality (M) and fishing mortality (F) were 1.65, 0.38 and 1.27 year−1, respectively. The relative yield per recruit (Y/R) analysis revealed the exploitation rate (E) at different levels as E0.1 = 0.36, E0.5 = 0.28 and Emax = 0.42. The current exploration level (0.77) is higher than the optimum exploitation rate (Emax = 0.42), indicating an overexploitation of the H. thomassi population. Accordingly, needed management measures should include restrictions on fishing gear mesh sizes, reduced fishing effort and declaration of closed seasons and sanctuaries to protect this threatened species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Being one of the important nutrients required by plants during photosynthesis, nitrogen (N) exerts a significant control on primary productivity and carbon dioxide sequestration. Therefore, it is essential to quantify the rates of N cycling processes, such as gross N mineralization and nitrification, to understand the flow and availability of N in different ecosystems. Lack of such data in tropical regions, particularly the Indian subcontinent, has constrained our understanding of N dynamics in soils of the subcontinent. Aims: Here, we report the results of gross N transformation rates from the hot and humid tropical forest soils of the Western Ghats, one of the global biodiversity hotspots located in India. Results: The experiments conducted using the 15N isotope dilution technique showed higher average gross N mineralization (2.6 ± 1.1 mg N kg−1 d−1) and gross nitrification (1.7 ± 1.1 mg N kg−1 d−1) rates in the top soil layers (0–20 cm), which decreased significantly with depth (20–40 cm) indicating potential for higher microbial activity in the top soils. The overall consumption rate of mineral N exceeded its production rate with higher consumption of ammonium (NH4+) than nitrate (NO3-) suggesting NH4+ as a preferred N source for microbes. The consumption of NH4+ was higher through NH4+ immobilization than nitrification indicating active N conservation mechanism and an efficient microbial adaptation. Conclusion: Despite high rates of consumption, accumulation of NH4+ and NO3- in soils of the Western Ghats suggested additional sources of mineral N other than internal recycling of N. Long residence time of NH4+ and NO3- in soils implied longer availability of unutilized mineral N leading to high soil acidity and potential for loss of N through leaching and denitrification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates (i) the role of orography in precipitation along and upstream of the Western Ghats (WG) and (ii) a diurnal cycle of precipitation in western India during the summer monsoon, using a high-resolution meteorological model and a network of surface rain-gauges over the WG. The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF-ARW) was used to simulate the 2008, 2009 and 2010 summer monsoons at 5 km horizontal grid spacing and allows resolved convection, with initial and boundary conditions provided by ERAInterim. The highest daily mean precipitation is found immediate to the WG escarpment and coastal plain between 11.5° and 18°N, but areas receiving the most rainfall do not necessarily receive it most frequently. The greatest percentage of rainy days occurs over the escarpment of the WG and slightly inland, corresponding to the topography, and high percentages (over 75%) of rainy days occur along the coast, along the coastal plain and the WG. These findings are in agreement with several recent studies using high spatial resolution Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) precipitation data. Analysis of WRF output at time increments of 30 min reveals a clear diurnal pattern of rainfall, with an early morning maximum offshore and afternoon maxima over inland regions that occur later in the day with distance inland. A weak land breeze circulation is observed, as nocturnal cooling of the land surface results in deceleration of westerly flow upstream of the WG. Offshore moisture convergence and destabilization of low-level air results in the offshore morning maximum. Rainfall maxima over inland regions indicate that, while orography is the primary impetus for lift, rainfall is also convectively driven. Analysis of convective parameters and landsurface variables such as soil moisture and latent and sensible heat fluxes supports this weak land-sea breeze circulation embedded in prevailing westerly monsoonal flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morphology of 19 adjacent westward-flowing and four eastward-flowing major catchments draining across the Western Ghat escarpment in southern Peninsular India was studied to examine how the channel patterns and their longitudinal profiles reflect the landscape evolution. Field surveys were complemented with the quantitative morphometric analysis of fluvial channel profiles using digital topographic data. Results show distinctive differences between eastward- and westward-flowing drainage systems. The channel profiles of eight westward-flowing drainage basins show an apparent morphological equilibrium characterized by concave upward shape, whereas most channels from the other westward-flowing basins display knickpoint(s). All studied eastward-flowing drainage basins display the morphological signature of disequilibrium in the form of knickpoints. The eastern and western margins of southern Peninsular India have experienced major tectonic events ~120 and ~65 Ma ago, respectively, and are since then tectonically quiescent. All studied westward-flowing basins share the same Arabian Sea base level, flow over comparable lithologies and developed under similar climatic conditions. The studied eastward-flowing basins have the Bay of Bengal as base level and similar climatic conditions. Therefore, the spatial variations in catchment morphometry is interpreted as a dynamic response to complex interactions and feedbacks between (i) pre-existing topography along and across the escarpment margins, and (ii) vigorous drainage piracy in more recent times. We hypothesize that the studied drainage basins have experienced different forcing magnitudes that can be quantified to a first order using the present day topography. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Using remotely sensed Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 3B42 rainfall and topographic data from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) Digital Elevation Model (DEM), the impact of oroghraphical aspects such as topography, spatial variability of elevation and altitude of apexes are examined to investigate capacious summer monsoon rainfall over the Western Ghats (WG) of India. TRMM 3B42 v7 rainfall data is validated with Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) gridded rainfall data at 0.5° resolution over the WG. The analysis of spatial pattern of monsoon rainfall with orography of the WG ascertains that the grade of orographic precipitation depends mainly on topography of the mountain barrier followed by steepness of windward side slope and altitude of the mountain. Longer and broader, i.e. cascaded topography, elevated summits and gradually increasing slopes impel the enhancement in precipitation. Comparing topography of various states of the WG, it has been observed that windward side of Karnataka receives intense rainfall in the WG during summer monsoon. It has been observed that the rainfall is enhanced before the peak of the mountain and confined up to the height about 800 m over the WG. In addition to this, the spatial distribution of heavy and very heavy rainfall events in the last 14 years has also been explored. Heavy and very heavy rain events on this hilly terrain are categorized with a threshold of precipitation ( R) in the range 150 > R > 120 mm day−1 and exceeding 150 mm day−1 using probability distribution of TRMM 3B42 v7 rainfall. The areas which are prone to heavy precipitation are identified. The study would help policy makers to manage the hazard scenario and, to improve weather predictions on mountainous terrain of the WG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variability of Indian summer monsoon local-scale onset dates is investigated at 1° spatial resolution by applying an agronomic definition (i.e. the first significant rains without a potentially crop-threatening dry spell thereafter) to gridded observed daily rainfall data (1901-2004). Median onset dates are compared well with previous estimates. The inter-quartile range varies from less than 2 weeks over the monsoon zone and Western Ghats, to about a month over the northwestern desert. A relationship between local-scale rainfall onset date and regional-scale indices of onset is demonstrated over the eastern part of the monsoon zone (i.e. approximately from Orissa and eastern Maharashtra to Western Bengal) and along the coast of the Arabian Sea; these regions are also found to exhibit significant correlations with Niño 3.4 sea surface temperature index in May. However, these relationships are found to be rather weak and geographically confined, which is attributed to low values of spatial coherence of local-scale onset date variability. A weak relationship is also found between local-scale onset date and the June-September seasonal rainfall total, while the latter is shown to be weakly more spatially coherent than local-scale onset date over the monsoon zone, and thus slightly more potentially predictable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amphibians are rapidly declining worldwide, but recent studies have shown that their diversity may be heavily underestimated, and many new species have been recently reported from biodiversity hotspots. For successful conservation and management strategies to be implemented within such hotspots, a better understanding of the species diversity and their evolutionary relationships is required. We used three mitochondrial ( 16S, 12S and CO1) and two nuclear ( rag1 and rhodopsin) gene fragments to investigate the genetic diversity within the endemic Indirana genus from the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot. The species diversity within Indirana was found to be much higher than previously anticipated. Instead of the expected six species within this region, our analyses identified 11 clades with high (4.2-17.1%) sequence divergence. Each of these clades is likely to represent a distinct species. Particularly pronounced polyphyly was found within Indirana beddomii, which consisted of four highly supported monophyletic clades with high genetic divergence. Similarly, Indirana diplosticta was divided into two highly divergent monophyletic clades. We also report a new candidate species within the genus from Vellarimala in Kerala, which we believe is yet to be described. Our results suggest the existence of multiple unrecognized cryptic lineages within Indirana, all of which are likely to have more narrow distribution ranges and lower abundances than the taxonomic units into which they are currently assigned. Hence, the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN) Red List statuses of Indirana frogs are likely to be in need of substantial revision, and detailed genetic studies across the Western Ghats might uncover additional new candidate species from this poorly studied endemic genus. Together with several earlier amphibian studies describing cryptic species from tropics, our results highlight the importance of proper species identification efforts before it is possible to reliably determine the IUCN conservation status of tropical amphibians described on the basis of morphological criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Habitat fragmentation, anthropogenic disturbance and the introduction of invasive species are factors thought to structure ant assemblages. To understand responses of the ant community to changes in the environment, ants are commonly categorised into functional groups, a scheme developed and based on Australian ants. 2. Behaviourally dominant and aggressive ants of the dominant dolichoderinae functional group have been suggested to structure the ant assemblages in arid and semi-arid habitats of these regions. Given the limited geographical distribution of dominant dolichoderinae, it is crucial to determine the responses of the ant community to changes in the environment in their absence. 3. This study addresses this less studied aspect by considering the associations of ants of Western Ghats, India, with habitat, anthropogenic disturbance and introduced ants. We determined how ant functional groups respond to these factors in this region, where dominant dolichoderines are naturally absent, and whether responses are consistent with predictions derived from the ant functional group scheme. 4. This study provides new information on ant assemblages in a little-studied region. As in other parts of the world, ant assemblages in Western Ghats were strongly influenced by habitat and disturbance, with different functional groups associated with different habitats and levels of disturbance. 5. No functional group showed evidence of being influenced by the abundance of introduced species. In addition, predictions of negative interactions between functional groups were not supported. Our findings suggest that abiotic factors are universal determinants of ant assemblage structure, but that competitive interactions may not be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study that describes the red pigment synthesized by the filamentous fungi Isaria farinose in the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. It notes that 51 soil samples were collected and used from diverse locations wherein pigment-producing-fungi were isolated by diluting in sterile distilled water. Findings have provided commercial importance in the production of Isaria farinosa pigment for industrial applications following considerable toxicological examinations.

Copyright of Conservation Biology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In spatial ecology, detailed covariance analyses are useful for investigating the influences of landscape properties on fauna and/or flora species. Such ecological influences usually operate at multiple scales, involving biological levels from individual to group, population or community and spatial units from field to farms and regions. The aim of this work was to analyze possible multiscale influences of some landscape properties on elephant distribution in the Western Ghats, India, by applying a recent and simple mathematical method to quantify such ecological relationships across space and scales. This method combines a moving window with various correlation indices to investigate the relationship between two mapped variables. Maps of landscape heterogeneity (quantified here at all locations of the landscape with a modified Shannon index) and Asian elephant presence (a two-dimensional presence probability) were significantly correlated. This correlation systematically decreased with increasing scales (i.e. sizes of the reference moving window). Yet, this global relationship includes both positive and negative correlations located at distinct places. We documented a positive feedback (reinforcement) because elephants appeared to seek greater habitat heterogeneity, in heterogeneous areas, such as along the interface between natural and a human-disturbed habitat or in the natural part of the studied landscape. In parallel, we observed a negative feedback (compensation) making elephants seeking more homogeneous places in some relatively heterogeneous zones. Such negative feedbacks corresponded to higher than average probabilities of elephant presence. Finally, when elephant density varied according to landscape heterogeneity (corresponding to significant correlations), it pointed towards swamps and grasslands, but not towards semi-evergreen or secondary forests (as it may have been expected). Land cover information appeared to be less relevant than an integrated heterogeneity index computed at all scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classic theory predicts species richness scales as the quarter-power of area, yet species–area relationships (SAR) vary widely depending on habitat, taxa, and scale range. Because power-law SAR are used to predict species loss under habitat loss, and to scale species richness from plots to biomes, insight into the wide variety of observed SAR and the conditions under which power-law behavior should be observed is needed. Here we derive from the maximum entropy principle, a new procedure for upscaling species richness data from small census plots to larger areas, and test empirically, using multiple data sets, the prediction that up to an overall scale displacement, nested SAR lie along a universal curve, with average abundance per species at each scale determining the local slope of the curve. Power-law behaviour only arises in the limit of increasing average abundance, and in that limit, the slope approaches zero, not ¼. An extrapolation of tree species richness in the Western Ghats to biome scale (60 000 km2) using only census data at plot scale (¼ ha) is presented to illustrate the potential for applications of our theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the Puntius denisonii (Day), an endangered and endemic cyprinid fish of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot in peninsula India. It explores the fish diversity and monitors their population, distribution, and abundance and recommends some priorities for conservation and management actions for P. denisonii. A study on market preference for native ornamentals using hierarchical clustering showed that P. denisonii is the most-preferred species in the international trade and resulted to exploitation that gave negative impact on its wild stock. It suggests a resource exploitation plan on the fish by gathering data in population, and community structure should be based on regulations to match exploitation and conservation objectives.

Although large areas of relatively undisturbed forests are essential for preserving biodiversity, opportunities for conservation in human-dominated landscapes must not be overlooked. Agroforestry systems such as shaded coffee plantations are known to be more compatible with biodiversity conservation than other, more drastic, land transformations. In recent times, however, modernization of coffee cultivation has influenced its conservation values adversely. We evaluated adult butterfly diversity in 12 coffee plantations around a protected area (PA) in the Western Ghats, India. We sampled 25 transects that varied in distance from the PA and in proportion of silver oak Grevillea robusta, an exotic timber species. We also had two transects within the PA. We used a combination of line transects and fruit bait traps to sample butterflies. Micro-climatic variables (temperature, humidity and light intensity) and other habitat variables (e.g. canopy cover, tree diversity, herb species richness) were recorded for each transect. We analyzed the effect of these variables on the abundance and species richness of butterflies, overall as well as in different families, feeding guilds and size classes. Proximity to the PA significantly influenced the abundance and richness of butterflies in coffee plantations, with transects close to the PA having higher abundance and richness than transects further away. Also, in terms of butterfly species composition, similarity to forest declined with increasing distance. Among the habitat variables, only canopy cover had a significant effect on abundance and richness, and the effect was negative. These patterns, with some exceptions, were also reflected for different families and feeding guilds. The proportion of silver oak had no apparent effect on butterflies. This study demonstrates that coffee plantations can act as a buffer for butterfly fauna within a certain radius of a PA. They have great potential as auxiliary tools and can significantly complement conservation efforts that are currently centered on PAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Despite their functional importance, little is known about how and where fungi can be conserved. It is important that we understand the consequences of habitat degradation and fragmentation for fungal assemblages if we are to devise successful conservation strategies. 2. We investigated the effects of fragmentation and disturbance on the diversity and landscape distribution of fungi in tropical rain forests in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats of India. We recorded macrofungi on three occasions over a wet season, in 0·125-ha plots in 10 forest reserve sites, 25 sacred groves and 23 coffee plantations. 3. Despite a long history of isolation from continuous forest, sacred groves had the highest sporocarp abundance and the greatest morphotype richness per sample area, while coffee plantations had the lowest. However, coffee plantation samples were more diverse for a given number of sporocarps than a sample of a similar size from other forest types. 4. Ordination by non-metric multidimensional scaling suggested that sacred groves had a macrofungal assemblage that was distinct from other forest types. This compositional difference was primarily because of the presence of a group of dead wood and litter decomposing fungi. Coffee plantations and forest reserve sites had very variable but overlapping compositions. 5. Neither sacred grove size nor distances between a grove and continuous forest accounted for a significant proportion of the total variation in their macrofungal richness. 6. There was no significant correlation between dissimilarity in macrofungal assemblage composition and geographical distance between sample sites. However, we found strong congruence between patterns of dissimilarity in macrofungi and trees between sites. 7. Synthesis and applications. These results imply that macrofungal distribution patterns at a landscape scale are determined by habitat requirements rather than dispersal or local population dynamics. This means that habitat degradation is a more serious threat to fungal diversity than fragmentation. Sacred groves, although small, are important for fungus conservation because they provide unique types of habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Conservation Biology is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

To study (1) the large-scale distribution patterns of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India; (2) the endemism and uniqueness of the fishes in various zones; and (3) the threat status of fishes by categorizing them under low risk (LR), vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) and critically endangered (CR). The Western Ghats of India. The scientific literature describing the freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats was reviewed. Data describing the lists of the species were extracted and complied. The species accumulation curve was plotted using Michaelis–Menten-like equation. The Western Ghats was divided into six zones and similarity of the species was calculated using Jacquard's index. Literature to date records 288 species belonging to 12 orders, 41 families and 109 genera, of which 118 species are endemic and 51 are unique. However, the species accumulation curve shows that there might be 345 species in this region, indicating that 16% species have not been recorded to date. An analysis of the distribution pattern of fishes in the Western Ghats suggests that the southern region is more diverse than the northern and central regions. The southern region shows high endemism and high uniqueness while the northern region shows high endemism but less uniqueness. The similarity index between the zones indicates that as the distance between the zones increases similarity decreases. The status of 105 of 288 species was not known due to data deficiency but among the remaining 183 species, 58 species were categorized as LR, 41 as VU, 54 as EN, 24 as CR while the remaining six species were introduced. The distribution patterns of fishes in the Western Ghats are discussed in accordance with the geography of Western Ghats, its climatic conditions and ‘Satpura Hypothesis’. The threat status of fishes found in Western Ghats suggests that at least 41% of fish fauna is threatened by either being VU, EN or CR. Implication of potent conservation measures is necessary to conserve the fish fauna of Western Ghats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crucial step in understanding the origin and maintenance of biological diversity is the assessment of its distribution over space and time and across environmental gradients. At the regional scale, two important attributes of species can be assessed that provide insight into speciation processes: species geographical and environmental ranges. The endemic tree flora of the Western Ghats is an interesting case for analyzing broad-scale biodiversity patterns because of the steep environmental gradients that characterize this tropical region of India. We analysed species geographical and environmental ranges by Canonical Correlation Analysis of point data from herbarium collections. We performed partial analyses to discriminate spatial and environmental correlates of species distribution, and evaluate the contribution of higher taxonomic ranks to these ranges. We identified different levels of organization in the distribution of endemism: 1) general features, such as the concentration of endemic species in the southern part of the Western Ghats, and the decrease in endemic species richness along the altitudinal and the dry season length gradients, and 2) patterns specific to genera or families, such as species niche separation along the environmental gradients. Our analyses enabled us to formulate hypotheses about the diversification of the endemic tree flora of the Western Ghats. They also confirm the value of Canonical Correlation Analysis as the suitable method for collection data analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim The objective of this study was to document succession from grassland thickets to rain forest, and to provide evidence for their potential as restoration tools. Location The Linganamakki region (State of Karnataka) of the Central Western Ghats of India. Method We selected thirty vegetation thickets ranging from 4 to 439 m[SUP2] in area in the vicinity of rain forest. The area of each small thicket was estimated as an oval using its maximum length and its maximum width. When the shape was irregular (mostly in large thickets) the limits of the thicket were mapped and the area calculated from the map. Plant species were identified, the number of individuals was estimated and their heights measured. Results There was a progression in the thickets from early to late successional species. Small thickets were characterized by ecotone species and savanna trees such as Catunaregam dumetorum. Savanna trees served as a nucleus for thicket formation. Colonizing species were mostly bird-dispersed. As succession proceeded in larger thickets, the proportion of evergreen, late-successional rain forest trees increased. The species composition of the large thickets differed depending on the species composition of reproductive adults in the nearby forested areas. The species within small thickets were also found in the large thickets. The nestedness in species composition suggested that species turnover was deterministic based on thicket size. Human disturbance (leaf and wood collection by the local populations) affected the species composition and the species-area relationship of thickets. Main conclusions Vegetation thickets are nodal centres for rain forest colonization within grasslands. They expand and replace savanna. Early successional bird-dispersed species established around savanna trees followed by late-successional rain forest trees dispersed from the nearby forest by birds. Restoration programmes that reproduce natural successional processes such as those... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baccaurea courtallensis Muell. Arg., a moderately sized evergreen tree of the Euphorbiaceae, is endemic to Western Ghats. Its fruits are edible, sour in taste, and contain 2–4 seeds. The native residents harvest the fruits for their medicinal value and for pickling. The seed weight is 0.28 g or 1.0 kg contains 3,500 seeds with a seed coat. The fruit to seed weight ratio is 34:1. Virtually, no work on the chemistry of the seeds or fruit of the species has been reported. Seeds of the species contain 22.5% oil on a dry kernel weight basis. Analysis of the composition of the oil revealed two major fatty acids palmitic acid (42.59%) and oleic acid (36.15%). Stearic acid content was 16.20% and myristic acid was 4.28% of the oil. Two minor acids present were lauric acid (0.40%) and linoleic acid (0.38%) and also including traces of linolenic acid. Physico-chemical properties of the oil showed an acid value of 1.402, a saponification value of 166.89, a refractive index of 0.4239, a specific gravity of −0.938, and an optical rotation of α at 29 °C + 0.35° ( λ = 589 nm). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]