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The decade of the seventies thus far has witnessed a considerable amount of legislative attention directed at rural areas. Under the general heading or rural development no fewer than 48 bills were introduced in the first session of the 92nd Congress in the House of Representatives and 22 bills were introduced in the U.S. Senate. Few of these became law but the sheer numbers give some indication as to the political importance of the issues involved. The purpose of this paper is to focus on a portion of one of the most important pieces of rural development legislation, the Rural Development Act of 1972 (RDA-72). This article traces the legislative history and the philosophical assumptions of RDA-72 with particular regard to the provisions of rural industrialization in the U.S.

This paper examines rural elementary education in Brazil in the light of historical phenomena and recent socioeconomic development. Contemporary rural society is described from the point of view of its social structure and the way in which rural educational problems emerge from this context. The paper concludes with a statement and evaluation of attempts on the part of the federal government to solve problems of elementary education in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic development involves elemental processes of great complexity and scope and that those who would move from a traditional to a modern society must relate themselves differently to the environment, shifting from an organic to an inorganic energy base, they must alter their ontology, accepting a different cognitive base for their relief system, they must adopt new values, forsaking old ones or integrating them somehow with the new values, indeed, they must psychologically refashion traditional man and his energizing and motivational system. The encompassing task of development requires the involvement of all sectors of society and different types of social units. This paper examines the nature and position of voluntary associations in the historic process of modernization and development.

The article focuses on a structural perspective towards a sociological theory of development. Perhaps no single word has been more widely and frequently used by such a large number of people in so many countries of the world today than the term "development." The term frequently refers to economic development as it has been a central concern to the majority of nations and citizens living there. The author also describes the reasons why sociology has been a latecomer in this endeavor may be found in the insistence on a value-free or ideologically neutral science of society. The author further says that his paper builds its argument on the following basic premises: 1) development is a value concept; 2) development is a social structural change; 3) the aspect of social structure that is most salient to development is that of resource allocation or the distributive system of society; and 4) the pivotal factor that can either promote or cripple the development process is political leadership. This article also presents a comprehensive study of human values which was previously not existing.

This paper examines selected demographic characteristics of countries at different stages of economic development On one hand, the data show that the demographic status of underdeveloped countries continues to be substantially more primitive than that of more economically advanced nations. On the other hand, there is evidence to suggest that some of the traditionally observed relationships (such as the inverse relationship between economic development and the rate of population growth) may not be as pronounced as was the case earlier in the present century. Since the various characteristics that differentiate underdeveloped areas from the rest of the world are closely related to the forces and circumstances which handicap their economic development, these findings may be taken as indicative of a real need for a continuous reexamination of the nature of the characteristic features of underdeveloped areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper sets forth a general hypothesis that relates instrumental activities of the family to unilineal emphasis in intergenerational ties and reviews the findings of a variety of studies which can be accounted for by this general hypothesis. The hypothesis states that, where there is succession in male instrumental roles, solidarity will be greater between the nuclear family and the lineal relatives of men, and where there is no succession, solidarity will be greater with the wife's family. Since industrialization does away with male succession in instrumental roles, the hypothesis explains the predominance of matrilateral ties between generations in industrial societies. Findings are reviewed from studies of intergenerational solidarity in pre-industrial and industrial societies. The data on intergenerational solidarity include household sharing, residential proximity, interaction and ties of sentiment, and exchanges of help. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social action is now receiving much emphasis in programs of community development. Hence, a sociological analysis of the process is both necessary and timely. In this paper a design for such an analysis is presented. It involves three aspects of the action process: (1) initiation, (2) legitimation, and (3) execution of the proposed action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, it is argued that the usual contents of the concepts modern and traditional are insufficient to account for the presence or absence of agricultural development. The use of the concepts may even have led to a certain neglect by rural sociologists of the structural factors affecting development. A more accurate way is suggested of classifying the variables influencing the farmers' innovativeness under the headings ignorance, inability, and unwillingness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

David McClelland's well-known hypothesis that achievement motivation is in part responsible for economic growth was supported by an interlocking series of empirical studies suggesting that a particular human motive, the need for achievement, promotes entrepreneurship, which in turn is a key to economic growth. But none of the studies focused on peasants, even though they make up at least three-fourths of the population in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where economic growth is a critical problem. More recent studies by Everett Rogers and his associates which show correlations between achievement scores and agricultural innovativeness in farming communities in both India and Colombia have led McClelland to the conclusion that his hypothesis also holds true for peasants, since he thinks of agricultural innovativeness as a form of entrepreneurship. The purpose of this study is to explore the generalizability of the McClelland hypothesis and of Roger's findings to other peasants, by presenting data on the relationship between achievement motivation and agricultural behavior among two different samples of Palestinian subjects.

The interrelationships between changes in the location of population and employment and the structure of economic activity in the development of regions has not been examined explicitly, This study constructs a paradigm based on national trends showing the relationship of population and employment in the development of a region. Data for the Old Manufacturing Belt and the South are examined to determine if the processes evident at the national level are apparent in two subnational regions which differ in their levels of economic development. The results are consistent. The paradigm appears to be useful as a model for indicating the broad patterns of change which can be expected to occur as a region develops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on rural sociological research and social policy. Rural sociologists, perhaps more than other social scientists, have a long tradition of belief that their work should be "applied," that is, their research should have an impact on social policy decisions relevant to pressing social problems. As recently as the 1972 annual meeting, this position was reiterated by the current president of the Rural Sociological Society Thomas Ford, who stated: "If there is anything that has set the Runt Sociological Society apart from organizations of other sociologists, it has been the deeply ingrained belief that sociology should be applied to the basic problems of rural society." In light of this belief, it is surprising to see that the most provoking and visible analysis of rural life comes from outside the social science academic community in general, and outside rural sociology in particular. Most sociological research is so trivial from a social policy perspective that art analysis of its impact would be meaningless. President Ford may also have been alluding to the problem of limited relevance when he made the following observation regarding the belief of rural sociologists in applied research. The failure to convert that belief into more effective action has at times made it appear more of a myth than a credo. Regardless of whether one accepts this particular characterization of rural sociology, few would deny that "Hard Tomatoes, Hard Times," has a visibility and therefore a potential for social policy impact shared by little if any rural sociological research.

The article is a Machiavellian Perspective on Community development theory and practice. Community development theory and practice have been generally inapplicable and unsuccessful in developing countries. The prime reason for this is: community development theory and practice, as well as foreign assistance, have been derived mainly from North American and Anglo-Saxon experiences that were later applied to other countries without serious consideration of cultural differences and ideological systems, rather than social change (development) has been advocated. The author proposes to offer alternative solutions, based on an antidemocratic and Machiavellian perspective. His justification is that: the developing countries, in order to advance more rapidly must forego the democratic experience until more urgent socioeconomic goals can be attained or at least show high probabilities for attainment. The author describes democracy as a form of government that is too inefficient for rapid socioeconomic development.

The article presents names of several books. Names of these books include "Dickson County Population in the Decade of the 1960's," by C.L. Cleland and Y.N. Lin, "Digest of Economic Development Division Research: April 1970-June 1971," "The Hired Farm Working Force of 1971: A Statistical Report," by Robert C. McElroy, "Issues in National Resource Use and Development," by Dan Bromley and Loyd Fischer, "Effect of Color on Recall in Fire Prevention Singing," by William S. Folkman, "Costs and Returns of Overnight Campgrounds in Alabama," by A.B. Sherling ad E.W. McCoy, "Selected Annotated Bibliography of Recent Research on Rural Life on Prince Edward Island," A.F. Macdonal and H.J. O'Connell, "Community Social Analysis of DeKalb County, Georgia," by Harold L. Nix and Norma R. Seerley "On-the-Job Training Program," "Economic Problems of rural America," "The Extension Role," by R.D. Craven, "Establishing Multi-County Organizations for Planning and Developing," by Samuel M. Leadley, and "Improving Nutrition in the Aged: An Evaluation of a Social Action Program," by Peggy J. Ross.

No national use of evaluation has been more loaded with responsibility, more ambitiously organized, or more intensively conducted than the work of the Program Evaluation Organization (PEO) established by the Planning Commission of India in 1952 to have surveillance over that country's wide-flung community development operations. This has been and still is a battle-test of evaluation in an urgent and fast-changing national program of social and economic development. An early formulation of the objectives of the PEO specified the purposes as follows: to help determine progress or accomplishments against what was intended, to provide guidance, to study nonadopters and nonadoption, to check teaching procedures, to provide evidence of the value of the work, to provide guides for training personnel, and to give villages some evidence and sense. It is clear that PEO in India has marked its first five years by survival; successful and useful prosecution of numerous studies; accumulation of a creditable series of reports; and manifest influence on the policy, program, and methods of community development.

The agricultural problem stems, on the one hand, from rapid national economic growth which causes a relatively unfavorable income position for farmers. On the other hand, a major cause of the problem has been the rate of technological advance, which has caused food output to increase more rapidly than it can be absorbed by growth in the population and national income. The farm problem can be solved only over a longer period, as agricultural output is adjusted through transfer of labor resources out of agriculture and through a decrease in the number of farms. Also, farming in general must be made more flexible and more adaptable to relative changes in demand for agricultural commodities as economic growth continues. More than ever before the solution of the problem depends upon research and education in the social sciences. Quite obviously a whole complex of sociological problems revolves around the needed adjustments and their effects upon the community and the family. The help of rural sociologists is urgently needed in solving the basic structural problems of agriculture as well as the secondary problems which arise. Rural sociologists can make important contributions in providing better insights into the attitudes and values of farm people, desirable goals and patterns, acceptable rates of change, communication between educational institutions and farm families to prepare them for changes and to help them make wise choices, employment services to facilitate change of employment, and help with many other aspects of the problem. The rural sociologist has never had a better opportunity to assume his rightful place among other agricultural and social sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological and economic development has spiraled in those areas in the United States that are at the crossroads of cultural exchange. On the other hand, cultural patterns of subsistence farmers in hill areas have changed very slowly. The cultural values in subsistence farming differ fundamentally from those in commercial agriculture. They stress getting along on small resources, staying out of debt, and being content with what you have, as contrasted with a special regard for managerial skill, high productive methods, and ambition to get ahead. The opportunity of subsistence farmers to shift into commercial farming is limited. The shift in values is most difficult; furthermore, as farm technology increases, a continuous flow of manpower out of agriculture is necessary. Local nonfann work opportunities are increasing, but the major shift is to employment in large urban centers. The habits and values of these people are a strong handicap in their adjustment to the responsibilities of urban life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training for community development is designed to prepare all categories of program participants for their specific roles in a national development scheme. One of the neglected areas of training at present is helping the higher echelons of program administrators with supervisory skills compatible with community development theory. Current rural development programs emphasize teaching villagers to formalize local initiative into group action for the improvement of living. Rural sociologists have a unique opportunity to make international contributions that will be helpful in planning the organizational structure for field operations, in establishing program evaluation plans and in developing training programs, particularly those phases of training that deal with the group process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elements of a social system are also, in a sense, the components of change. The Loomis and Beegle listing of "elements" is adopted here: end, norm, status-role, power, rank, sanction, facility, and territoriality. Suggested applications to Pakistanian culture of observed situations and practices in the United States are discussed with respect to their involvement of these designated components. The changes proposed relate to the "dignity of labor," use of mosques, volunteer leadership, water-storage ponds, developing "village businessmen," family planning, kitchen improvement, land division, health education, and farm supply co-operatives. The purpose of the discussion is to illustrate and emphasize the crucial importance of social components in whatever changes are proposed under the aegis of "community development." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Community development" is derived and possibly takes its name from programs and activities often thought of as community organization as well as more ambitious schemes of economic development. Theoretical formulations are possible on two levels: that of the practitioner, which is largely administrative and action-oriented in character, and that of the social scientist, which is largely conceptual in nature. Four of the current ways of viewing community development are: first, as a process, with a focus upon sequences of interaction; second, as a method, as a means to an end; third, as a program, consisting of content as well as procedures; fourth, as a movement, involving personal commitment and an emotional dynamic. For each of these approaches various fields of sociology have significant contributions to make. Different theoretical implications are also determined by the geographical level (local, regional, national) at which community development is viewed as well as by the types of functionaries which are relied upon to promote community development programs. These are discussed with reference to existing sociological fields of inquiry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article present an overview of pamphlets dealing with the most important contemporary problems, represents something relatively new in the U.S. public education. Eleven of the pamphlets now being considered deal specifically with problems related to the post-war world, three are focused on the issue of race relations, and two are concerned with questions of a more abstract nature, namely constitutional rights and the relation between religion and democracy. The bulletin, "Adventures in small-scale rural enterprises in South Carolina" contains a series of human interest stories dealing with some of these enterprises and the people responsible for them. Small rural industries may play an important role in the future economic development of the South. They also offer possibilities for rehabilitating wounded soldiers. Besides making a definite contribution to the production of food, fiber and other things needed for war, such industries provide market outlets for farm products, employ farm people and bring in extra profits for farmers.

Old concepts become stumbling blocks to human progress. Customs, laws, organizations either must be changed to meet new conditions in a changing social environment or must be discarded entirely. So it is with definitions. Either they must be understood to refer to changed situations or new terms must be invented to meet a radically altered situation. The inherited definition of the rural community is positively inhibiting rural interest in the broader contacts of rural life. The earlier concept of a rural community included a vaguely and indefinitely bounded physical area supposed to be occupied by people who had more or less common interests. Many definitions have been written, but two or three will indicate the trend of thinking. The building of real, local farm communities is perhaps the main task in creating an adequate rural civilization. The present situation in rural life calls for a change in traditional definitions and stress on possible objectives for progress. The change needed is from a territorial or spatial definition of a community to a functional one.