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This thesis is written as a collection of three research papers detailing six studies, through which imagery perspectives, imagery ability, and personality, were investigated. Studies 1 and 2 explored the effects of internal visual imagery and external visual imagery on the performance of slalom-based motor tasks that require an effective use of line for a successful performance. Study 1 provided support for the beneficial effects of internal visual imagery over external visual imagery for the performance of slalom-based tasks; however Study 2 only provided some additional support. In Studies 3-5, an existing imagery ability questionnaire was adapted to bring it in line with contemporary views on imagery perspectives and kinaesthetic imagery. More specifically, in Study 3, the instructional set of this questionnaire was altered so as to be able to assess 3 factors: internal visual imagery, external visual imagery and kinaesthetic imagery ability. Following confirmatory factor analysis procedures and item deletion an acceptable model fit was provided, supporting the 3-factor structure of the questionnaire. Further analyses also supported the delineation of internal visual imagery and kinaesthetic imagery as separate modalities. Study 4 confirmed the factorial validity of this questionnaire with a different sample, and Study 5 provided initial support for the concurrent and construct validity of this questionnaire. Study 6 examined the effect of narcissism on the efficacy of imagery perspectives on golf putting performance. High narcissists using external visual imagery displayed performance improvements, whereas high narcissists using internal visual imagery did not. The performance of low narcissists remained relatively constant regardless of imagery perspective used. The results highlight narcissism as a moderator of imagery perspective effectiveness.

The development of excellence in team sports such as rugby union is not yet fully understood and to date, the understanding of factors predicting progression in rugby is unknown. This thesis builds on the existing research exploring the multidisciplinary factors which underpin the development of excellence in sport (Doherty et al., 2018; Gulbin et al., 2013; Güllich et al., 2019; Lovell et al., 2017; Tribolet et al., 2018). In it we take a multidisciplinary approach to exploring the psychosocial factors important to the development of excellence in some of the best rugby union players in the world, the multidisciplinary factors which influence progression through the RFU's development pathway and the influence of personal factors on the efficacy of constraints-led training. The thesis consists of a general introduction (Chapter 1), four empirical studies (Chapters 2, 3 and 4), and a general discussion (Chapter 5). More specifically, Chapter 2 (Study 1) presents an in-depth qualitative investigation of the psychosocial factors underpinning success and development in rugby union. We conducted in-depth retrospective interviews (lasting 32 hours in total and producing over 300,000 words of text) with former world's best International male rugby union players (N = 5) and their nominated coaches (N = 5). Interviews covered early critical developmental experiences, personality, relationships, and training behaviours. Abductive thematic analysis revealed commonalities, which are discussed under three main headings: 1) Formative Experiences, 2) Personality, and 3) Training Behaviours. The findings from Study 1 suggest early negative experiences, particularly disruptions to parental relationships, and the realisation of insecure attachment, coupled with a positive sport related event, may underpin the drive and development of the necessary personality traits and behaviours to achieve excellence in rugby. Chapter 3 presents two longitudinal studies (Studies 2 and 3) which examined the factors predicting progression in rugby. We employed a multidisciplinary approach and using pattern recognition analysis we aimed to identify the psychosocial, demographic, and practice and training factors which differentiated between players who progressed, and players who failed to progress, at two key stages along the pathway, from U18's to U20's (Study 2) and from age grade rugby to the premiership (Study 3). Findings in these studies indicated that a variety of psychosocial, demographic, and practice and training factors were able to differentiate between groups who were and were not progressing. In particular, results indicated that players who progress at both stages undertook fewer hours of constraints-led practice suggesting there may currently be too much challenge and not enough support within practice at present. Further, in Study 2, those players progressing appeared to demonstrate a number of highly desirable psychosocial characteristics (e.g., mastery orientation, commitment to training), yet those progressing in Study 3 had a psychosocial profile that was potentially more challenging for coaches and managers to work with. In addition, findings suggest that the RFU may be using current performance as an indicator of future potential, which could present a risk to coaches and the RFU in the loss of talented players early in the pathway. Chapter 4 presents a study (Study 4) which explored the influence of avoidant attachment styles (dismissive and fearful) and ASD traits (systemising and empathy) on the effects of CL practice on progression through the RFU Development pathway. We re-used some of the data collected in Studies 2 and 3 but subjected these data to a different and comprehensive set of analyses to explore the research question. Findings revealed that increases in the percentage of CL practice were associated with greater decreases in the likelihood of progression when dismissive avoidant attachment was high than when it was low. Conversely, increases in CL practice predicted a greater increase in the likelihood of progression when fearful avoidant attachment was high, as opposed to when it was low. No interaction was found between systemising and CL practice in relation to progression. Finally, analyses revealed that lower levels of CL practice were associated with an increase in the likelihood of progression when empathy was high. These findings provide initial support for the suggestion that not all individuals will benefit from CL practice to the same extent and provide support to the notion that individual differences may influence the effects of certain training protocols on performance. A summary of the empirical findings from these four studies are then discussed in Chapter 5, along with the theoretical and applied implications of this research. Strengths, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed.

Across multiple domains of psychology, resilience is a well-researched construct. However, the research literature has been hampered by ambiguities and inadequate in its conceptualisation, assessment, and impact. With these issues in mind, we first offer a comprehensive model of resilience drawn from its contemporary conceptualisations. Second, we develop a self-report resilience measure from this model. Finally, we aimed to test this resilience model and assessment in challenging settings with young people who participate in overseas expeditions. Unfortunately, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, we could not fully utilise these expeditions. Therefore, we further examined and tested our resilience model to another challenging scenario, the pandemic itself. The thesis comprises six empirical studies organised into three chapters. Chapter 1 takes a critical examination of resilience research, highlighting several limitations we perceived. These included (i) ambiguous and incomplete resilience definitions and conceptualisations; (ii) associated problems with measurement (alongside problematic psychometric properties); and (iii) lack of theory-driven intervention tools and studies. Chapter 1 supports and extends resilience as a state-like, pro-active and reactive response containing the mechanisms of anticipation, minimising, managing, and mending. We also support and extend research where mechanisms can operate in several domains of life, including physical, social, cognitive, emotional, and a general domain. The chapter finishes by discussing applications for this model in expeditions research, interventions, and profiling. Chapter 2 contains two separate studies aimed at developing a resilience measure in line with our conceptualisation. Study 1 (n = 181) focused on establishing the measure (the Resilience Process Scale, RPS), with items based on the four mechanisms of anticipate, minimise, manage, and mend, with vignettes to separate each domain (general, physical, social, cognitive, & emotional). We used Bayesian Structural Equation Modelling (BSEM) to validate the model and refine the scale into a 13-item measure (using the same 13-items in each domain or vignette). Study 2 (n = 284) further validated the measure using BSEM and a more heterogeneous sample, providing further support for the factorial validity of the RPS. Chapter 3 contains two separate studies. Study 3 (n = 35) examined overseas expeditions as a challenging environment that could enhance resilience mechanisms and domains. Study 4 (n = 16) focused on an expedition training weekend to examine the benefits of training and to design and pilot test a theory-driven resilience intervention. The intervention introduced challenges to target the five domains of resilience via evidence-based strategies. The main findings across the studies indicated that expeditions and training weekends provide an environment that enhances resilience, cognitive appraisals, and well-being, in addition to positive correlations between resilience mechanisms with positive self-concept and well-being. However, probably due to the small sample size and an incident that developed over the weekend, there were no significant effects of the intervention. Chapter 4 contains two separate studies. Using data from studies 1-4, Study 5 (n = 555) examined resilience profiles across the four mechanisms using Latent Profile Analysis, revealing four emerging profiles. Study 6 provided confirmation of the replicability of these profiles in a new sample (n = 400). We examined the relationship between the profiles across different cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes in relation to the pandemic. We further explored the stability of resilience profiles over a four-month period. The main findings included confirming four profiles: 1. Low resilience - High anticipate. 2. Low resilience - Low anticipate. 3. Moderate resilience. 4. High resilience. Further, resilience is related to greater well-being, coping, and lower anxiety. The profiles were also somewhat replicable with stability across time. Chapter 5 concludes the thesis, providing a general summary and discussion of the findings, implications for theoretical and applied perspectives, and paths for future research.

The present thesis aimed to advance our understanding of athlete availability in the talent development process of developing elite athletes. The thesis contains five chapters, three of which are empirical studies. Chapter 1 provides a broad review of the literature surrounding athlete availability, athlete monitoring, and the talent development process of developing elite athletes. This review highlights the existing literature surrounding athlete availability in developing elite athletes and underscores the current gaps in the literature. It should be noted that further exploration of the literature is referenced in subsequent chapters. Chapter 1 ends with the aims of the thesis, namely, how does athlete availability and the determinants of athlete availability differ between non-funded (NF) and developing elite athletes? What are the determinants of athlete availability in a developing elite athletic population? How important is athlete availability, sleep, well-being, and health in the context of talent development and progression? In Chapter 2, over fourteen weeks, I examined differences between NF and developing elite athletes on determinants of availability (training, health, sleep, stress, and wellbeing). Findings revealed that, despite greater training loads, developing elite athletes were more available, and reported better sleep, lower levels of stress, and greater wellbeing than their NF counterparts. Chapter 3 used pattern recognition analyses to identify the combination of training and health variables that best discriminated between athletes with lower and higher training availability (relating to health and training modification) in a cohort of developing elite swimmers using pattern recognition analyses. Fifteen developing elite swimmers completed the Athlete Monitoring Questionnaire (AMQ) for 63 weeks, via an online platform, reporting their training and competition availability, training volumes, sleep, wellbeing, stress, and health (injury and illness). The findings identified that training availability is not determined through unidimensional constructs; rather availability is best understood via a multidimensional approach, which considers (at least) training, sleep, and wellbeing. Chapter 4 was written as a scientific report produced for Swim England and British Swimming. This empirical study aimed to identify the combination of training and health (biopsychosocial, training, and health) factors that were important to discriminate between higher potential - high-level athletes who were identified as most likely to progress in the high-performance system – and lower potential athletes – high-level athletes less likely to progress in the high-performance system. Using pattern recognition analyses, I examined data collected from the Swim England Performance Squad over 18 months. These data are related to the athletes' practice and training, psychosocial characteristics, coach-athlete relationships, health (e.g., injury, illness, wellbeing, and sleep), and training metrics (e.g., hours, distance, and perceived effort). The results of the pattern recognition analyses revealed that the main discriminators related to psychosocial factors, coach-athlete communication, wellbeing, sleep, and perceived challenge within training. Chapter 5 discusses the theoretical and applied implications of the current thesis. A common theme throughout the empirical chapters was that the determinants of athlete availability are best understood via a multidimensional approach. Accordingly, it is vital to measure and consider the interactive effect of a wide variety of bio-psycho-social variables together. Furthermore, athlete availability is important in progressing and thriving in the high-performance system. However, the influence of athlete availability varies at different stages of an athlete's development. This thesis has begun to advance the theoretical understanding between athlete availability and talent development. The pattern recognition analyses of the empirical Chapters 3 and 4 highlighted that practitioners wanting to improve athlete availability and their ability to thrive in the high-performance system might do so by reducing athlete psychological stress and improving wellbeing, improving athlete education on sleep behaviours, having a greater focus on coach-athlete communication around goal-setting, and supporting coaches to manage their wellbeing and athletes with more challenging personality profiles.

In this thesis, through the lens of agentic emotion regulation theory (Woodman et al., 2010) and attachment theory (Barlow, 1969), we aimed to investigate the emotion regulation function that activities may serve. Agentic emotion regulation theory provides an individual-differences perspective on participants' psychological needs and motives for engaging in risk-taking activities (Woodman et al., 2010). According to agentic emotion regulation theory, high-risk activities provide greater opportunities to experience and control strong externally derived emotions, in which participants' agentic actions alter the nature of their emotions and life circumstances (i.e., success, injury, death). In this way, participating in high-risk activities, such as mountaineering, has been shown to reduce participants' emotion regulation difficulties and bolster their sense of agency immediately after participation (Barlow et al., 2013). Despite these advancements, we do not understand how participants' agentic emotion regulation difficulties evolve between participation. Understanding the evolution of participants' agentic emotion regulation between participation would help to explain the motives that underlie their repeated return to the high-risk sports domain. Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) is another perspective on how our relationships with people, activities, and objects influence our emotion regulation strategies and wellbeing. Bowlby's (1980) attachment theory proposes that all individuals strive to maintain close relationships with agents that provide a safe haven from distress and secure base from which to explore. Researchers have begun expanding the scope of attachment theory by investigating the attachment emotion regulation function that nonhuman agents serve, such as pets and objects, in response to social insecurity (Keefer et al., 2014). Despite these advancements, discrepancies remain regarding the definition of genuine attachment relationships within this literature and there are scant empirical tools for measuring the attachment support that human-nonhuman relationships provide (Carr & Rockett, 2017). As such, there is ongoing debate regarding the attachment function that human-nonhuman relationships serve and their compensatory role in response to insecure social relationships (Keefer et al., 2014). Chapter 1 outlines the agentic emotion regulation and attachment theory rationale on which Chapters 2, 3, and 4 are based. In Chapter 2 of this thesis, we provide evidence that high-risk climbers, such as mountaineers and traditional climbers, are motivated by the agentic emotion regulation function that participation serves. Studies 1, 2, and 3 show that high-risk climbers experience a greater increase in agency and emotion regulation difficulty between participation than low-risk climbers (i.e., sport climbers) and low-risk sporting participants (e.g., swimming) who displayed no such difficulty. Collectively, these findings provide the first repeated-measures evidence that high-risk activities are beneficial for regulating participants' agentic emotion regulation difficulties. In Chapter 3 (Study 4), we provide support for the attachment function that elite athletes' activities serve. Specifically, our qualitative findings suggested that athletes sought their activities as a safe haven from their interpersonal and intrapersonal anxieties. Furthermore, these findings provide a novel insight into the emotion regulation processes that athletes' activity attachments supported. That is, athletes' activities provided a secure base from which to reflect and reappraise challenging emotions. In Chapter 4 (Study 5) we first developed and provided support for the psychometric properties of the four-factor Relationship Attachment Support Scale and six-factor Relationship Exploratory Support Scale. Then, in Study 6, we provided support for the compensatory attachment role that activities serve in response to social insecurity. Specifically, the emotion regulation benefits of individuals' activity attachments significantly attenuated the negative relationship between insecure social attachment and wellbeing. Collectively, these findings provide a preliminary insight into the emotion regulation processes and benefits of activity attachment, especially for those suffering from insecure social attachments. Chapter 5 of this thesis discusses the results from three empirical chapters (Chapters 2, 3, and 4) in a theoretical and applied context.

The area of Post-Exercise recovery has gained a lot of attention in recent years, especially in applied sport settings. An athlete spends more time recovering than they do training, thus recovery is something that athletes can use to benefit them. Post-exercise recovery can incorporate both psychological (e.g., perceptions of emotions, feelings) and physiological factors (e.g., hormones, heart rate, muscular). As such the aim of this thesis was to investigate post-exercise recovery from an interdisciplinary perspective by considering the role of psychology and its effect on post-exercise recovery through both perceptual and hormonal markers. Specifically, this thesis examined the influence of personality (namely Optimism and Alexithymia) on post-exercise recovery in a range of settings (laboratory, longitudinally & around a race). Currently, the post-exercise recovery literature assuages a "one size fits all" approach and has yet to explore how individual differences in personality influence the nature of recovery, thus understanding the role personality plays in recovery has clear theoretical and applied implications. This thesis presents three empirical studies across three chapters. The empirical chapters are prefaced by a general introduction and are brought together at the end of the thesis in the general discussion. The first empirical chapter (Chapter 2) investigated the independent effects of Alexithymia and Optimism on post-exercise recovery in an acute laboratory setting; between and after two bouts of treadmill running exercise. Post-exercise recovery was measured via questionnaire and salivary analysis of cortisol and Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Alexithymia predicted better post-exercise recovery between exercise bouts and after the second exercise bout, , but poorer recovery following the second bout. Optimism failed to predict recovery either between bouts or following the second bout of exercise. These findings highlight potentially differential effects of alexithymia in different aspects of the recovery process. The second empirical chapter (Chapter 3) investigated the personality-recovery relationship over a three-month training period amongst a sporting population. Post-exercise recovery was assessed perceptually by questionnaire and hormonally by hair cortisol, that measured the accumulation of cortisol in a three-month period. Unexpectedly no relationships were seen between either Alexithymia or Optimism and hair cortisol concentrations for the three-month period. However, Alexithymia had a negative relationship with average perceived recovery from training over the period. Furthermore, higher levels of alexithymia were associated with higher perceptions of stress and poorer well-being. Optimism had a positive relationship with average training hours and perceived well-being and a negative relationship with perceived stress over three three-months. The findings of this chapter indicate that despite personality being associated with relevant psychological indicators associated with post-exercise recovery, these relationships are not reflected hormonally in the chronic stress biomarker hair cortisol. The final study (Chapter 4) examined the influence of alexithymia and optimism on perceptions of post-exercise recovery during a two-week build up to, and after, a cycling race, focusing on perceptions of recovery. There were no relationships observed between either Alexithymia or Optimism with perceptions of recovery in either the before or after the cycling race. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that personality certainly effects perceptual post-exercise recovery from exercise across a range but not all settings. The studies also demonstrate that personality has a relationship with physiological post-exercise recovery depending on the setting. These findings demonstrate that personality is worthy of further investigation within the post-exercise recovery domain.

Optimal mental health is a global and increasingly pressing issue. Major events in recent times, such as the effects of global warming and the Covid-19 pandemic, have had undeniable negative effects on people's well-being. The mental health of young people is of particular importance: strategies to deal with adversity are learned and developed at this stage of life. Success aids the likelihood of being a lifelong resilient and hopefully flourishing individual, whereas difficulty may leave an individual vulnerable to slipping into persistent mental ill health. Given this, there seems an obvious and necessary role for educational institutions in promoting such strategies and thus improving the well-being of students. Positive psychology has a valuable contribution to make in this regard, as achieving optimal mental health is perhaps its primary purpose, and positive psychology interventions (PPIs) are broad-based and cost-effective to implement when compared with more traditional clinical approaches. They are also technology friendly, meaning they may be disbursed widely. The research in this thesis explores the use of several PPIs in school and university settings with the aim of building significant and lasting well-being improvements for young people. It works to find the most effective interventions and to understand what makes them so. Finally, it seeks to create real-world value by considering how such interventions may be designed and implemented in an educational context. The thesis comprises four studies. The first study used a positive diary exercise in a sample of primary school children. The exercise resulted in a significant increase in happiness and reduction in depressive symptoms during and up to three months after the intervention. A tertile split revealed interestingly different response profiles for participants depending on baseline well-being. A similar intervention in the second study found significant associated improvements in academic performance. The third study applied two PPIs in samples of undergraduates. The first part also used the diary exercise, which found there to be less convincing evidence of its effectiveness when compared with the first two studies. The second part used a signature strengths intervention, which resulted in marked and sustained improvements in self-esteem and life satisfaction. This study highlighted the differing outcomes that different interventions may have, particularly across age groups. It also raised questions as to why certain well-being markers improve more or last longer than others, suggesting that an individual's sense of autonomy or control may be a factor. These questions shaped the fourth study, which was more exploratory. It used a novel exercise-framed PPI to determine whether a sense of control, as measured by judgments of contingency, is linked with well-being, and whether positively manipulating such judgments might lead to improvements thereof. The complexity of the experimental paradigm meant that findings were inconclusive in this regard, but it opened the door to future work that might be able to distil more robust effects. Overall, this thesis finds that PPIs demonstrate huge promise for mental health improvements and that they are a feasible option for incorporation into an educational curriculum. However, it seems they are not universal aids and careful consideration needs to be given to the type of intervention used and who the target recipients are. Age and baseline well-being are two important factors, for example. If properly implemented, PPIs could be valuable tools to build resilience and enable young people to flourish now and through the rest of their lives.

Researchers have assessed resilience interventions in many potentially high risk or stressful settings such as the armed forces, business, sport, and academia, but to date little resilience research exists regarding youths who have offended. Further, evidence has suggested these youths are likely to have experienced above average levels of adversity, via potentially high risk or stressful situations such as childhood trauma, school exclusion, high crime neighbourhoods and court appearances. Given that resilience involves successfully overcoming adversity, this concept seems highly relevant to these youths. The current thesis therefore sought to address this research gap. Following a successful funding application by the first supervisor Dr. Stuart Beattie and Gwynedd/Môn's Youth Justice Service Manager Mr. Stephen Wood to KESS2 (Knowledge Exchange Skills Scholarship) the current thesis sought to answer the question "Can a tailored psychological resilience intervention reduce recidivism in children and young people who offend". To answer this question, in Chapter 2 we conducted a systematic review using PRISMA guidelines. Our aim was to assess existing intervention literature related to youths who had offended that targeted resilience. As database searches were unable to identify any studies that targeted resilience interventions in this population or met our inclusion criteria (e.g., involved youths who had offended more than once, contained a control group, measured re-offending), we extended our database searches to include factors empirically linked with resilience (e.g., sense of coherence, self-concept). This systematic review identified just 14 studies worldwide, 7 of which included pre- and post-psychological assessments. However, those studies assessing psychological changes did this post-completion of the programme and did not conduct follow-up assessments. Therefore, it is unknown if the youths had sustained these changes 6 or 12 months later and we cannot therefore conclude whether they contributed to the sustained desistance. In Chapter 3, we interviewed 12 Youth Justice case workers using in-depth semi-structured interviews. Our aim was to identify successful approaches that included psychological factors associated with desistance and other positive behavioural outcomes such as employment. Consultation between the PhD candidate and first and second thesis supervisors led to the decision to conduct an abductive data analysis, applying principles from both deductive and inductive approaches. 'Critical friends' meetings throughout the process enabled a critical stance, further strengthened by our different professional backgrounds. Use of directed content analysis allowed for assessment of the extent to which data agreed or disagreed with existing theoretical frameworks or theories. Thematic analysis then identified six key themes. Theme one involved factors relating to perceived low resilience such as negative self-concept and low comprehension. Theme two pertained to factors relating to perceived resilience which included adaptability and optimism. Themes three and four related to strengths-based individualised approaches and relationship-based working. Theme five outlined psychological changes associated with positive outcomes such as increased awareness and improved self-concept. Theme six related to factors contributing to continued offending which included hopelessness, defiance, and chaotic lives. Chapter 4 involved developing psychological resilience interventions using findings from Chapters 2 and 3. This was followed by the development and delivery of training for Youth Justice case workers to pilot the interventions. This chapter therefore had two aims; firstly, to increase the confidence of Youth Justice case workers in delivering psychological resilience interventions, and secondly to increase resilience and reduce re-offending in the youths. Both studies used quantitative pre- and post-designs with control and intervention groups. Results showed staff who received the intervention training significantly increased their confidence over and above the control group (p = .000), and youths that then received the interventions significantly increased in resilience compared to their controls; (p = .004) according to staff scores and (p = .012) according to the youths own self-scores. Overall, the findings of this thesis findings support strengths and resilience-based approaches with an emphasis on positive relationships with YJS staff. Interventions identified to be effective targeted self-efficacy, emotions, and sense of coherence. Improvements noted in the youths relating to resilience-based interventions included improved attachments to individuals and society, reduced defiance, more positive self-concept, and improved life outcomes.

Narcissism represents a trait of particular relevance for teams given the propensity of narcissistic individuals to 'get ahead' rather than 'get along' in team settings. However, despite the relevance of narcissism to team research, it has received scant attention in the literature. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to test narcissism in teams, examining how narcissism is related to intragroup conflict, as well as determining moderators which may give a contextual understanding of narcissism in teams. This thesis presents four empirical studies (two in Chapter 2, one in Chapter 3 & 4, respectively). Chapter 2 examines an extended input-output-process model of narcissism in teams, using a cross-sectional and two-wave longitudinal study designs. I tested a conditional indirect effect model of narcissism on task cohesion via three intragroup conflict types (relationship, task, and process) moderated by the levels of narcissism in the team (narcissistic group composition). In both studies, results revealed that a significant conditional indirect effect via process conflict alone. More specifically, narcissism negatively impacted task cohesion via process conflict at low levels of perceived narcissistic group composition, with this effect weakened (Study 1) or diminished (Study 2) at high levels of narcissistic group composition. The findings of these studies point to the relevance of studying the contextual effects of team narcissism, as well as the importance of process conflict in teams. Chapter 3 (Study 3) offered a more in-depth and realistic examination of the relationship between narcissism and intragroup conflict. In this study, I examined intragroup conflict in relation to distinct patterns of the three types (relationship, task, and process). This approach acknowledges the reality of the co-existence of conflict types within team environments. Applying latent profile analysis to conflict types allows insight into the distinct patterns of conflict whereby their antecedents (team-level narcissism) can be examined. ABSTRACT 2 Results revealed five distinct profiles of conflict which differed in their composition of each type of conflict. Team mean and maximum narcissism scores predicted membership of medium and high TC-dominant profiles, and dysfunctional profiles. That is, high levels of team narcissism were associated with profiles that contained moderate to high levels of all conflict. Finally, Chapter 4 investigated the interplay between follower and leader narcissism on follower commitment to group goals. Specifically, using polynomial regression with response surface analysis, I examined the linear and curvilinear between follower and leader narcissism on follower commitment. Results revealed that when follower and leader narcissism was matched follower commitment increased until a certain point, thereafter commitment then decreased. When leader and follower narcissism were mismatched commitment decreased, with the lowest levels of commitment evident when leader narcissism was low and follower narcissism was high. Results suggests that matching leader and follower narcissism may increase follower commitment until a certain point, after which it can then be detrimental. Further, it highlights mismatches in leader-follower narcissism that can impact follower commitment. Chapter 5 summarises the results for the three empirical chapters, as well as addresses theoretical and applied implications of my findings. Strengths, limitations, and future directions are also discussed. This series of research adds to the extant literature of narcissism and teams and lays a strong foundation for more work in this area.

This thesis reports the findings of the first empirical investigations into the completion rates of the Mountain Leader qualification. In addition, the research reported in this thesis relied on the development of a novel methodology that provides researchers with a new tool for investigating complex real-world phenomena, where complex interactions are likely to be important. Further, the findings of the research in this thesis support those of recent investigations into the development of expertise and advances understanding of self-efficacy theory. This thesis comprises six chapters that answer the research question and five appendices that provide supplementary information that is not central to the findings of the research but was foundational in the development of the research and researcher. Chapter 1 outlines the nature of the problem investigated in the research presented in this thesis-the low completion rates of Mountain Training qualifications and notably the Mountain Leader qualification. Chapter 1 also introduces several prominent (and relevant) areas of social and sports psychology literature, along with explanations of their proposed relevance to the completion rates of the Mountain Leader. Further, the chapter briefly outlines some theoretical and methodological limitations of previous research that has tried to investigate similarly complex problems. Chapter 2 presents Study 1, the first empirical investigation into the completion rate of the Mountain Leader qualification. Study 1 was a large qualitative study that used in-depth interviews to identify the factors that organisational managers felt were important influences on the completion rate of the Mountain Leader qualification. The findings suggested that completion involved at least two distinct stages: (a) getting to an assessment and (b) passing an assessment. Participants felt that different factors were relevant to each of these steps. For getting to assessment, participants felt that confidence, motivation, barriers to gaining experience, and social support were important factors influencing the likelihood of candidates getting to an assessment. To pass an assessment, participants felt that it was essential that candidates were resilient and had enough experience that was good quality and suitably varied. The research in Chapter 3 built on Study 1 by collecting quantitative data from candidates and Mountain Training's database and using non-linear pattern recognition analyses to identify the most important discriminatory factors for three classification problems: (a) discriminating male candidates who are assessed within 18 months of their training course from those who are not, (b) discriminating female candidates who are assessed within 18 months of their training course from those who are not, and (c) discriminating candidates who pass their first assessment from those who do not. Whilst relatively few themes were included in the findings of Study 1, up to 168 individual factors were identified as potentially important to the completion rate of the Mountain Leader qualification. Therefore, we put significant effort into creating a survey tool for collecting quantitative data for these variables from candidates reliably. This work is reported in Appendix B. Chapter 3 presents a study for each of the classification problems listed above. Study 2 identified 16 features that classified male candidates as having been assessed within 18 months or not with up to 92.73% accuracy. These features can be considered in three groups: the context of the Mountain Leader within a candidate's life, self-efficacy and resilience, and social support. Study 3 identified 22 features that correctly classified female candidates as having been assessed within 18 months or not with up to 96.64% accuracy. These features can be considered in three groups: the context of the Mountain Leader within a candidate's life, motivation, and consolidation of experience. Study 4 identified 14 features that correctly classified candidates as having passed their first assessment or not with up to 82.61% accuracy. These features can be considered in two groups: the experience of training and preparation for assessment. The findings of Studies 2-4 broadly supported those of Study 1. This congruence allowed us to place greater confidence in the importance of the factors identified as important influences on the completion rate of the Mountain Leader qualification. Based on the findings of Studies 1-3, Chapter 4 addresses a question that arose about the nature of the relationship between experience and self-efficacy for female and male candidates. To do so, Chapter 4 presents two studies that examined the relationship between experience and gender differences on Mountain Leader related self-efficacy from an interactive perspective. The first of which, Study 5, developed the Mountain Leader Self-Efficacy Scale (MLSS). The MLSS had a good fit to the data, and measurement invariance analyses suggested that the MLSS factors were the same for female and male candidates. Study 6 confirmed the factor structure of the MLSS and, using moderated hierarchical regression analyses, provided evidence for an interactive effect of gender and experience on routine skill self-efficacy, where the relationship between experience and self-efficacy was stronger for female than male candidates. Chapter 5 contains a general discussion of the methodological, theoretical, and applied implications of the research reported in this thesis. Finally, Chapter 6 discusses some of the work that has been carried out to disseminate the findings of this research throughout the Mountain Training network.

The broad aims of this thesis were to investigate the influence of vitamin D supplementation on URTI burden in military recruits (Chapter 3), to examine the influence of psychosocial and behavioural factors on URTI risk in marathon runners (Chapter 4), and to investigate the influence of psychological stress and anxiety on the mucosal immune response to exercise, in both a controlled, lab-based setting and a field-based marathon (Chapter 5). Firstly, we found that vitamin D sufficiency lowered URTI burden in military recruits during Army training (Chapter 3). Specifically, in 1,644 military recruits, we found that vitamin D sufficient recruits were less likely to have a clinician-diagnosed URTI during training, compared to those with serum 25(OH)D < 50 nmol·L-1(Study 1). Then, in a randomised-control-trial (RCT), including 249 men, we found that vitamin D supplementation by oral D3 or simulated sunlight, which achieved vitamin D sufficiency in almost all, reduced URTI burden regardless of supplementation type: 21% lower URTI peak severity and 36% fewer days with URTI (Study 2). And that individuals beginning supplementation with 25(OH)D < 50 nmol·L-1 benefitted from greater reductions in URTI burden: 33% shorter URTI duration. However, we did not find any influence of vitamin D supplementation on mucosal immunity. In Chapter 4, a prospective, cohort study of 305 marathon runners, we examined the influence of psychosocial factors and sleep on URTI prevalence. We found that runners were more likely to report a URTI during the two weeks before or after a marathon if they reported higher psychological stress, anxiety or neuroticism, early life adverse experience, or lower perceived sleep quality. Runners with early life adverse experience were over two times more likely to report a URTI during the two weeks before the marathon (OR: 2.33) and runners with poorer perceived sleep quality were two times more likely to report a URTI during the two weeks after the marathon (OR: 0.48). In the final empirical chapter, we examined the influence of psychological stress and anxiety on the mucosal immune response to a moderate, lab-based bout of exercise (Study 1) and a field-based marathon (Study 2; Chapter 5). We found that perceived psychological stress, trait anxiety and state anxiety influenced the mucosal immune response to exercise. In men, perceived psychological stress, trait anxiety and state anxiety were negatively correlated with the mucosal immune response to exercise. In response to a controlled, moderate bout of exercise, in individuals with predominantly low-moderate psychological stress and anxiety, men with lower psychological stress and anxiety experienced an increase in saliva SIgA SR, whereas those with moderate stress and anxiety saw little change. Then, in a field-based marathon, when including individuals reporting high stress and anxiety, men with higher perceived psychological stress and trait anxiety had a greater reduction in mucosal immunity in response to a marathon. These findings support the recommendation that exercise physiologists should account for psychological stress and anxiety when examining the immune response to exercise. Taken together, Chapters 4 and 5 indicate a key role of psychological factors in immunity in exercising individuals. Specifically, individuals with higher psychological stress and anxiety appear to be at greater risk of URTI and experience greater reduction in mucosal immunity following exercise.

Research has demonstrated that the performance of narcissists rises and falls with the opportunity for self-enhancement and the emergence of ego threats. As such, it has been suggested that narcissists are more capable of performing in a competition, where self-enhancement and ego threats are present, rather than in a training environment, where such opportunities are lacking. However, the narcissism-performance literature has focused on narcissism in its grandiose form but has not considered the so-called adaptive and maladaptive components of narcissism. Indeed, adaptive narcissism, reflecting high levels of confidence and assertiveness, is different to maladaptive narcissism, reflecting a strong willingness to dominate and control over situations. Since narcissism can reflect either high levels of adaptive or maladaptive narcissism, or certainly both, it is essential to consider adaptive and maladaptive narcissism interact in order to gain a full picture of how narcissism plays a role in performance settings. Therefore, the overarching aim of the thesis was to examine the interaction between adaptive and maladaptive narcissism in two different performance contexts, namely high-pressure performance environments and athletic training environments. Furthermore, the thesis also explored mechanisms underlying the narcissism-performance relationship in order to explain why the adaptive  maladaptive narcissism interaction would contribute to high performance under high pressure. Finally, the thesis examined practical strategies to protect against the potential adverse effects of narcissism on athlete training; providing the first evidence that goal-setting and imagery use during training help narcissists (especially those high in adaptive narcissism) train better. The thesis consists of a general introduction (Chapter 1), four empirical studies (Chapters 2 and 3), and a general discussion (Chapter 4). More specifically, Chapter 2 presents a collection of three experimental studies, examining the interactive effects of adaptive and maladaptive narcissism on performance under pressure as well as testing the mechanisms underlying the performance effects. Experiment 1 used a basketball free throw task to assess the adaptive  maladaptive narcissism interaction on performance under high pressure. Experiment 2 used a golf-putting task to test the hypothesized performance effects. Further, Experiment 2 employed self-report and behavioural measures to explore the mechanisms underlying any performance effects. To test the replicability and generalizability of Experiments 1 and 2, Experiment 3 used a letter transformation task and a colour-word Stroop task to test the adaptive  maladaptive narcissism interaction, along with self-report and psychophysiological measures to examine mechanisms. Across each study results consistently demonstrated that adaptive narcissism predicted performance under high pressure only when maladaptive narcissism was high. Also, at high levels of maladaptive narcissism, adaptive narcissism predicted decreased pre-putt time in the golf-putting task (Experiment 2) and an adaptive psychophysiological response in the letter transformation task (Experiment 3), reflecting better processing efficiency. Findings suggest that individuals high in both adaptive and maladaptive narcissism perform better under pressure because of superior processing efficiency during task performance. Chapter 3 (Study 4) presents an applied study examining a three-way interaction between adaptive and maladaptive narcissism and performance strategies (specifically goal-setting and imagery), on athlete quality of training. Using a sample of athletes from different backgrounds (i.e., sporting levels and sport types) with multiple-source data provided (i.e., self-report and informant rating), Study 4 demonstrated consistent three-way interactions between narcissism components and each performance strategy. Specifically, when athlete use of goal-setting was low, adaptive narcissism contributed to increased distractibility and poorer quality of preparation when maladaptive narcissism was low but not high. However, when athlete use of goal-setting was high, adaptive narcissism was not associated with training behaviours regardless of the level of maladaptive narcissism. Identical interactions also emerged for imagery use. The findings suggest that maladaptive narcissism and the performance strategies of goal-setting and imagery protect against the potential adverse effects of adaptive narcissism on athlete training. Based on the findings of the empirical work presented in Chapter 2 and 3, Chapter 4 of this thesis provides implications at a broad theoretical and applied level. Strengths, limitations, and directions for future research are also discussed.

Military personnel are required to perform effectively in extreme enviroments. Optimal performance in combat enviroments is a complex process and its neural basis is poorly understood. Understanding the factors that influence how an individual is able to perform to a high standard and cope with the demands of the situation while under extreme operational stress is vital. As stressful events can have a lasting impact on soldiers and while for some deployment can lead to positive change for others it can increase the risk of suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). To better understand how soldiers are able to perform effectively, in the first study of the thesis we developed a psychometrically robust measure of mental robustness that was informant rated and relevant to combat operations. The measure assesses a soldier’s ability to make decisions under pressure and their ability to function effectively when faced with emotional challenging situations as two separate dimensions. A second study confirmed the factor structure of the measure and also provided initial evidence for its construct validity. The measure underpinned our final study (Study 3) which combined psychometric measures, behavioural and functional imaging to produce a deeper understanding of the relationship between activity in key brain regions and key components of robustness. Study 3 assessed soldier’s ability to make decisions under pressure when presented with combat relevant stimulus. The study employed two tasks; Task 1 required individuals to attend to emotional aspects of the stimuli as they would do in during combat and Task 2 required soldiers to attend to the non-emotional aspects of the stimuli. Our findings suggest that robustness acts as a resistance resource and although it does not protect against PTSS it does allow a curvilinear relationship between PTSS and performance. The ultimate goal of this thesis is to better understand the critical factors required for optimal military performance during deployment. This will allow more targeted training that will help highly motivated individuals achieve excellence.

There are considerable interindividual differences in people's capacity to excel in performance domains; the present research used relevant personality theory to understand individual differences in two important areas: performance under pressure and persistence. Across three studies, reinforcement sensitivity theory was applied to examine performance in response to acute and prolonged pressure whilst considering the moderating effects of situational, cognitive, and higher-order processes. In Studies 1 and 2, participants performed a skilled motor task after receiving either early or late warning of an upcoming pressure manipulation. The results show that heightened sensitivity to punishment is adaptive for motor performance under pressure when threats are detected early and these beneficial effects appear to be underpinned by t he implementation of effective coping strategies. In Study 3, we examined the interactive effects of lower-level reinforcement sensitivities and higher-order reflective systems t hat mediate goal-directed control of behaviour ( effortful control) to predict long-term performance under pressure (mental toughness). Contrary to expectation , the present sample revealed no relationship between reinforcement sensitivities and effortful control to predict mental toughness. Studies 4-6 examined narcissism and persistence. By considering the interactive effects of grandiose and vulnerable components of narcissism, our results show that people who possess high levels of narcissistic grandiosity are only motivated to display persistence when they also possess a degree of self-doubt in their superiority . Overall , the results support the perspective that seemingly 'negative' traits can be adaptive in performance domains and stress the importance of considering relevant personality trait interactions to predict performance.

This thesis is written as three chapters detailing five studies related to the coaching of psychological skills (PS) and coach behaviour change. There were three main aims to this thesis: (a) to utilise a rigorous approach to the implementation and evaluation of a sport psychology intervention, guided by Medical Research Council guidelines for complex interventions; (b) to extend know ledge regarding the effective facilitation of coach behaviour change; and (c) to establish an effective fo1mat of coach intervention to optimise coach provision of PS support for athletes. Study 1 piloted a need supportive coaching PS intervention informed by Self Dete1mination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002). The mixed method intervention evaluation demonstrated positive outcomes in the coach encouragement of PS, some athletes' use of PS and some athletes' training behaviours. Additionally, unintended outcomes were also evident ( e.g., changes of coach employment and further dissemination regarding PS). The process evaluation of the pilot study highlighted that the intervention was need supportive. Possible improvements were identified for future interventions in terms of the provision of structure, the measurement of behaviour change and data collection processes. Based on the pilot findings an intervention process model was created to indicate the components of coach change to be addressed in the subsequent intervention; namely, coach understanding of PS, coach need satisfaction, coach self-discrepancies, coach attitudes, coach intentions to coach PS and coach procedural knowledge. Studies 2-4 involved the development of novel coaching PS measures. Specifically a questionnaire measuring the fundamental components of coaching PS (CPS-F) and a questionnaire measuring the need supportive coaching of PS (CPS-NS) were developed. Following confirmatory factor analysis procedures and item deletion, acceptable model fits were provided for each measure, supporting a 3-factor structure for the CPS-F and a single factor structure for the CPS-NS questionnaires. Study 4 provided initial support for the concu1Tent, discriminant and predictive validity of these questionnaires. Study 5 was a full-scale intervention implementation and evaluation informed by Study 1 and using measures created and validated in Studies 2-4. The study used a mixed-methods between-groups design to compare the efficacy of standardised PS workshops delivered online and a need-suppo11ive coaching PS mentoring intervention. The results revealed that the mentoring intervention had more positive, long-term impact on the coaching of PS and athlete awareness of PS use than the workshop method. However, the coaches who received the online intervention did experience some need support which was an unintended consequence. It was revealed that the relationship between the coaching of PS and athletes' performance is mediated by athlete awareness of PS, athlete use of PS in training and athlete training behaviour ( coping and effort). Levels of need suppo11 provided on the programme were related to coach need satisfaction, coach beliefs about PS and coach intentions to coach PS highlighting that future interventions should seek to better support coaches' needs. At the end of thesis a publication plan of how the PhD chapters were to be published has been provided (See Appendix L).

Narcissists possess an inflated, overly-positive self-view, which they maintain and boost by taking advantage of opportunities for self-enhancement. Leadership is viewed by narcissists as a viable means towards achieving self-enhancement, which gives rise to their leader emergent tendencies. However, the characteristics of their personality suggest that their leadership qualities will decrease over time, although no evidence has previously existed supporting this hypothesised effect. The present thesis provides the first empirical evidence to support the theorised temporal pattern of narcissistic leadership - characterised by initial favourable follower perceptions that wane over time. Additionally, we explored the mechanisms that explain the temporal pattern of perceptions towards narcissistic leadership, specifically transformational leadership and evolutionary strategies towards gaining social status: prestige and dominance. Chapter 1 introduces the relevant aspects of narcissism, leadership and evolutionary psychology, setting the scene for the thesis and presenting the questions pertaining to the temporality of narcissistic leadership that are examined in the subsequent empirical chapters. Chapter 2 (Pilot Study) examines the temporality of narcissistic leadership and the visionary component of transformational leadership through two hypothetical temporal scenarios. The results provide preliminary evidence that narcissistic leadership is perceived favourably for a short duration but not for a long duration, and also suggest that inspirational motivation, a visionary component of transformational leadership, mediates the perceptions of narcissists as effective leaders in the short-term but not over the long-term. In Chapter 3 (Studies 1 and 2), we describe two longitudinal round-robin studies, utilising group members with varying levels of acquaintance, that provide the first empirical evidence that the temporality of narcissistic leadership is characterised by initial positive follower perceptions that wane over time. We also demonstrate that transformational leadership mediates the relationship between narcissism and leadership early on but not later, suggesting that follower perceptions of narcissistic leaders across time is dependent on narcissistic leaders’ demonstration of appropriate transformational leadership behaviours. Chapter 4 (Study 3) provides an evolutionary perspective on the temporality of narcissistic leadership. Utilising a longitudinal, round-robin experimental design similar to the studies in Chapter 3, the results confirm that narcissistic leaders are perceived favourably by followers initially but not over time. Additionally, both evolutionary strategies to gaining social status - prestige and dominance - explain narcissists’ initial success as leaders. However, immediately after leader emergence, only dominance is effective in helping narcissists remain as favourable leaders, but the beneficial effects of dominance dissipate over time. In Chapter 5, we present a summary of the thesis; the theoretical and applied implications of these findings; strengths and limitations of the thesis; as well as future research directions. The findings from this thesis provide the first empirical evidence that narcissists are likely to be favourably perceived as leaders, but only in the short-term. This honeymoon effect of narcissistic leadership is characterised by narcissists’ initial success in exhibiting transformational leader behaviours, and their subsequent failure to demonstrate appropriate transformational leader behaviours over time. From an evolutionary perspective, both dominance and prestigious strategies explain followers’ initial positive perceptions of narcissists as leaders. However, dominance strategies seem to allow narcissistic leaders to enjoy that honeymoon effect for a longer period than prestigious strategies. Nevertheless, persisting with dominance strategies over prestigious strategies beyond the initial phase of leadership culminates in the curtailment of followers’ perceptions of narcissistic leaders.