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We investigated the role of labour in explaining the yield gap of cereals at both crop and farm levels on smallholder farms in Southern Ethiopia. A household survey containing detailed information of labour use at crop and farm level of ca. 100 farms in a maize-based system around Hawassa and ca. 100 farms in a wheat-based system around Asella was used for this purpose. Stochastic frontier analysis was combined with the principles of production ecology to decompose maize and wheat yield gaps. Actual maize and wheat yields were on average 1.6 and 2.6 t ha−1, respectively, which correspond to 23 and 26% of the water-limited yield (Yw) of each crop. For both crops, nearly half of the yield gap was attributed to the technology yield gap, indicating sub-optimal crop management to achieve Yw even for the farmers with the highest yields. The efficiency yield gap was ca. 20% of Yw for both crops; it was negatively associated with sowing date and with the proportion of women's labour used for sowing in the case of maize but with the proportion of hired labour used for sowing and weed control in the case of wheat. The resource yield gap was less than 10% of Yw for both crops due to small differences in input use between highest- and lowest-yielding farms. The contribution of capital and farm power availability to crop yields, input use and labour use was analysed at the farm level. Labour calendars showed that crops cultivated in Hawassa were complementary, with peak labour occurring at different times of the year. By contrast, crops cultivated in Asella competed strongly for labour during sowing, hand-weeding and harvesting months, resulting in potential trade-offs at farm level. Oxen ownership was associated with capital availability, but not farm power in Hawassa and with both capital availability and farm power in Asella. Farmers with more oxen applied more nitrogen (N) to maize in Hawassa and cultivated more land in Asella, which is indicative of an intensification pathway in the former and an extensification pathway in the latter. Differences in land:labour ratio and in the types of crops cultivated explained the different strategies used in the two sites. In both sites, although gross margin per unit area increased linearly with increasing crop yield and farm N productivity, gross margin per labour unit increased up to an optimal level of crop yield and farm N productivity after which no further response was observed. This suggests that narrowing the yield gap may not be economically rational in terms of labour productivity. We conclude that labour (and farm power) is not a major determinant of maize yield gaps in Hawassa, but is a major determinant of wheat yield gaps in Asella. • Labour calendars reveal competition for labour in Asella, but not in Hawassa. • Yield gaps for maize and wheat in Southern Ethiopia are around 80% of Yw. • The technology yield gap explains nearly half of the yield gap of both crops. • Lack of capital hinders maize intensification in Hawassa; access to farm power wheat intensification in Asella. • Labour is a major limiting factor in some African smallholder farming systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic growth in Pakistani agricultural sector lags behind growth in industry and services, creating an ever widening rural-urban income fissure. Agricultural mechanization plays a strategic role in improving agricultural production and productivity in developing countries. The average farm size in Pakistan is small (2.5 acres) and small and marginal land holdings (less than 2.0 ha) account for 85% of land holdings. Mechanizing small and non-contiguous group of small farms is against 'economies of scale' for individual ownership of farm machinery. It was observed that there was a direct correlation between farm power availability and productivity during the past six decades. Being an agrarian country, mechanization can be called as back bone of Pakistan's economy as it optimizes the use of biological, chemical and hydrological inputs. So far, Pakistan has only experienced selective farm mechanization as this concept has remained limited to use of tractors only and at the country level, the temporal analysis shows that an increase in tractor population from 1975 -1984 was about 341% while it was 61% from 1984-1994. At present there are about 0.94 million tractors in Pakistan, which alone provides 0.84 hp/acre. Land preparation is the only operation that is nearly 100% mechanized in the country for almost all crops with 901 thousand chisel plough and 108 thousand Mould board ploughs. The market of planting and spraying machinery has grown from 70 and 21 thousands in 2004 to 295 and 1438 thousands in 2014 respectively due to the inclination of the farming community towards mechanized sowing and spraying. The thrasher's market in Pakistan is estimated at 20,000-30,000 units annually by sales resulting in nearly 100% mechanized threshing operation for cereal crops. By increasing the available horse power per hectare and by the proper management of agricultural machinery the average crop yield can be enhanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has transforming from subsistence farming which was dependent on human and animals, to mechanized farming using inanimate power sources like tractors, diesel engines and electric motors. In Punjab agriculture, the human and animal power has substantially reduced from 7.5% to 0.69% and 73% to 0.61% respectively due to increase in mechanical power from 17% to 76 % and electrical power from 1.7% to 23.5% from 1960-61 to 2012-13. The intensity of farm power availability has increased from 0.37 to 5.68 kW/ha during the same period. Correspondingly there has been an increase in the cropping intensity (112% to 196%), production (3.16 to 28.58 mt) and productivity (668 to 3638 kg/ha) of total food grains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study indicates that there is increase in area, production and productivity of major food crops in Jammu & Kashmir State of India over the years but the rate of increase has been slow. Jammu region of the State has maximum cropping intensity (176.8%) followed by Kashmir (123%) and Ladakh (106%). The average land holding in the State is very low (0.66 ha) in comparison to National Average (1.68 ha). The unit farm power availability on gross cropped area basis is 0.78 kW contributed 51.2% by animated (human and animal power) sources and 48.8% from rest of the sources. The present agricultural production is insufficient to mitigate the requirement of growing population due to the limited scope of increase in cultivable area and low level of mechanization. The bottleneck in mechanization are due to non availability of improved equipment, small and scattered land holding, low investing capacity of the farmers and lack of awareness among farmers. Despite these, there is a great need and effort to increase the productivity and reduce the drudgery through mechanization inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]