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Simple Summary: This study addresses the growing risk of tick bites, which is becoming more prevalent due to changes in landscape, leading to an increase in wildlife that supports tick populations, raising the risk of disease transmission to humans and animals. To better understand this, we explored the ecology of ticks by examining the relationship between wildlife presence and tick abundance in two regions: an alpine hunting district and a natural park in the Apennines. We used camera traps to monitor wildlife and conducted tick sampling nearby. Additionally, we considered factors like altitude, vegetation, and climate. Our findings highlight the significant role of altitude and wildlife presence—both influenced by habitat and land management—in the global abundance of ticks in the environment. In particular, the species most impacting tick presence was roe deer. These insights could be valuable for managing natural environments, helping to reduce the risk of tick-borne diseases, and they show the utility of camera trap data, which are gathered with great detail and little disturbance of wildlife. The increase in acarological risk of tick bites is significantly driven by profound changes in landscape, which alter the density and distribution of wildlife that support tick populations. As a result of habitat shifts and land abandonment, which create environments conducive to tick proliferation, the risk of disease transmission to humans and animals is increasing. In this context, it is important to explore tick ecology by applying a comprehensive methodology. In this study, we examined the relationship between wildlife temporal occupancy and tick abundance in two distinct regions: an alpine hunting district and a natural park in the Apennines. For each sampling point, we calculated wildlife temporal occupancy from camera trap pictures and estimated ticks' abundance from dragging transects in the area immediately surrounding camera traps. In modelling the relationship between those two variables, we included abiotic factors such as saturation deficit, normalized difference vegetation index, and altitude. Results show the importance of altitude and wildlife temporal occupancy (itself related to different habitat and land management characteristics) on the ecology of questing ticks. If employed in management decisions for natural environments, such information is useful to modulate the acarological risk and thus the risk of tick-borne pathogens' transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases are a significant burden on the global economy, public, and animal health. These events are predominantly zoonotic (60.3%), with the majority (75%) originating from wildlife. In Italy, there are hundreds of research, monitoring, and surveillance activities targeting wildlife-related pathogens. The objective of this review is to highlight the importance of hunters in the context of disease research and surveillance in wild populations. A total of 192 papers, 16 theses, and 94 congress abstracts were selected by applying a specific string and inclusion criteria. The contribution of hunters amounts to nearly 400,000 sampled animals. These results underscore the paradigm of One Health in wildlife health surveillance, emphasizing the crucial role of hunters in sample availability, which forms the foundation of current health surveillance activities. In Italy, there are hundreds of research, monitoring, and surveillance activities targeting emerging and re-emerging pathogens. These activities heavily rely on hunters for sample collection and early identification of morbidity/mortality events. The objective of this review is to describe and quantify the contribution of hunters in the context of disease research, monitoring, and surveillance in wild populations. A literature review and descriptive summary statistics were performed following PRISMA-2020 guidelines; articles were obtained from major scientific databases, abstracts from national and international conferences, proceedings, graduate-level theses from online library repositories, and direct contact with academic experts. The contribution of hunters in terms of sample collection for health-related activities on wildlife amounts to 400,000 sampled animals. Wild boars were involved in 158 surveillance systems/research studies, followed by red deer (71), foxes (63), and roe deer (59). The pathogens under surveillance were mainly zoonotic (Salmonella spp.), emerging (Hepatitis E virus), and/or vector-borne (West Nile virus). The temporal distribution of scientific papers followed a positive trend that reflects the growing interest in wildlife from different sectors. These results highlight how wildlife health-related efforts are a paradigm of the concept of One Health, in which the role of hunters is crucial to ensure sample availability, and it constitutes the base of much current wildlife health research, monitoring, and surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) is a rodent present in Africa and southern Europe (Italy exclusively). The Italian population is expanding from the centre to the north and south, but little is known about the species' abundance. Reliable population density estimates are important for monitoring trends in wildlife populations and for developing effective conservation and management strategies. In this context, we aimed to first report crested porcupine population density on the northern limit of its current distribution range using a non‐invasive approach. Specifically, we randomly placed 38 camera traps in an area of 242 km2 in north Italy (Lombardy region), and we applied camera trap distance sampling. We estimated a porcupine density of 0.49 ind·km−2 (±0.33, standard error). The results presented here are the first crested porcupine density estimate accounting for imperfect detection (i.e. species present but not detected). The abundance estimate reported here is fundamental for a better understanding of the species status in Europe and for implementing conservation and management plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Invasive species negatively affect native populations through predation, competition, and the potential introduction of health threats, such as parasites. Black rats (Rattus rattus) are among the worst invaders of islands, and a significant source of parasites infecting humans and other animals. This study conducted a screening for zoonotic and veterinary-relevant microparasites in wild rats from small islands in central Italy, including the Pontine Islands and Pianosa, where the primary hosts of the selected parasites were either absent or scarce. The aim was to investigate the potential role of rats as their host. Rats were kill-trapped and molecular analyses were performed on different tissues to identify microparasite presence. Results confirm that invasive species such as rats may contribute to an elevated parasitological threat to local wildlife and human communities in specific ecosystems. Notably, we documented the first record of Babesia divergens, typically associated with cattle and wild ungulates, in wild rats. Additionally, we confirmed the presence of Leishmania infantum on an island without dogs, which have traditionally been considered the primary hosts. Our study helps to document parasite distribution and interactions between parasites and introduced invasive hosts, and represents useful knowledge to inform public health and wildlife management policy. Invasive species have a detrimental impact on native populations, particularly in island ecosystems, and they pose a potential zoonotic and wildlife threat. Black rats (Rattus rattus) are invasive species that disrupt native flora and fauna on islands and serve as potential competent reservoirs for various pathogens and parasites. Microparasites screening was conducted in rat populations from small islands in central Italy (the Pontine Islands and Pianosa) with the aim of assessing the role of rats in maintaining infections, particularly in cases where key reservoir hosts were scarce or absent. We focused on microparasites of zoonotic and veterinary relevance. A total of 53 rats was kill-trapped and target tissues were analysed with molecular techniques. We observed the absence or very low prevalence of Anaplasma spp., while Babesia was found in rats from all locations, marking the first recorded instance of Babesia divergens in wild rats. Data from Pianosa strongly suggest the presence of an autochthonous Leishmania infantum cycle in the Tuscan archipelago islands. Neospora caninum was absent from all islands, even in areas where dogs, the main reservoirs, were present. Toxoplasma gondii was only recorded on the Pontine Islands, where genotyping is needed to shed light on infection dynamics. This study confirms that invasive species, such as rats, may be responsible for maintaining an increased parasitological threat to fauna and human communities in certain ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surveillance systems for zoonotic and transboundary emerging pathogens that are structured following the holistic principles of joint work efforts from the human health, animal health and environmental health sectors are reviewed to provide a summary of one‐health based surveillance systems existing worldwide. A systematic search of available literature was undertaken across various biomedical and scientific literature databases (from 2000 to 2022) and were selected using inclusion/exclusion criteria to filter references presenting systematic surveillance systems applicable to transmissible, transboundary, and zoonotic diseases operating under the One Health approach. A standardized data model and vocabulary were used to extract and classify key information to characterize target surveillance systems. 996 studies were obtained after research (589 after duplicates' elimination) for inclusion in this review and information was extracted using a data model, which were reduced to 79 items once inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. From these articles, 80 additional items were found within references. West Nile virus, followed by rabies and Rickettsiae are the main target pathogens for which One Health efforts are in place within structured and systematic surveillance systems. The worldwide revision of surveillance systems for emerging and transboundary zoonotic diseases evidenced specific targets for one‐health efforts which differ from the targets of sectoral surveillance and are specifically prone to a cooperative approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The present clinical field trial was conducted to assess the efficacy of a broad-spectrum parasiticide spot-on formulation containing eprinomectin (Broadline®) against Thelazia callipaeda eyeworm in naturally infected cats. Methods: Fifteen privately owned cats harboring at least one live adult T. callipaeda were included in the study. Cats were randomly allocated to an untreated control group of seven cats or to a Broadline®-treated group of eight cats. Cats were treated on Day 0; ocular examinations were performed at inclusion and on Days 7 and 14; eyeworms were recovered and counted on Day 14. The primary efficacy assessment was based on group comparison of number of T. callipaeda on Day 14. Results: Seven days after treatment, six of eight treated cats were negative for eyeworm infection per visual examination, and on Day 14 no eyeworms were found in the treated cats while the seven untreated cats were still infected (geometric mean: 1.97). All cats had inflammatory ocular signs at inclusion; on Day 14, five of eight treated cats had recovered while all untreated control cats were still symptomatic. All collected parasites were confirmed to be T. callipaeda by morphology and molecular characterization. Conclusions: A single treatment with Broadline® provided 100% efficacy against feline thelaziosis and improved related ocular inflammation signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ticks and tick-borne diseases are increasingly recognized as a cause of disease in dogs worldwide. The epidemiology of ticks and tick-transmitted protozoa and bacteria has changed due to the spread of ticks to urban and peri-urban areas and the movement of infected animals, posing new risks for animals and humans. This countrywide study reports information on distribution and prevalence of pathogens in ticks collected from privately-owned dogs in Italy. We analyzed 2681 Ixodidae ticks, collected from 1454 pet dogs from Italy. Specific PCR protocols were used to detect i) Piroplasms of the genera Babesia and Theileria, ii) Gram-negative cocci of the family Anaplasmataceae and iii) Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Sequencing of positive amplicons allowed for species identification. Results: Babesia/Theileria spp. DNA was detected in 435 homogeneous tick-pools (Minimum Infection Rate (MIR) = 27.6%; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 25.4–29.8%) with higher prevalence in Ixodes ricinus and Rhipicephalus sanguneus group. The zoonotic B. venatorum was the most prevalent species (MIR = 7.5%; 95% CI = 6.3–9.0%). Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species were detected in 165 tick-pools (MIR = 10.5%; 95% CI = 9.3–11.8%) and specifically, A. phagocytophilum was identified with MIR = 5.1% (95% CI = 4.1–6.3%). Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. and B. afzelii were detected with MIR = 0.4% (95% CI = 0.2–0.8%) and MIR = 0.3% (95% CI 0.1–0.7%) respectively. Conclusions: Zoonotic pathogens B. venatorum and A. phagocytophilum were the most frequently detected in ticks collected from privately-owned dogs which might be used as markers of pathogens presence and distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leishmaniosis is, to date, considered the second most important emerging vector-borne protozoal disease in the world after malaria. The form of zoonotic visceral leishmaniosis found in the Mediterranean basin is caused by Leishmania infantum , and its life cycle includes the domestic dog and a phlebotomine sandfly vector. This complex epidemiological cycle and its high prevalence of subclinical infection, hinder the surveillance and control of L. infantum , and allows it to go unnoticed at the geographical endemicity limits of the parasite or in recently colonized areas. We, therefore, tested 102 wolves ( Canis lupus ) and 47 other wild carnivores in order to detect Leishmania DNA by means of PCR. Samples were collected from 2008 to 2014 in Asturias (northern Spain), a region considered non-endemic for the parasite. The results obtained provided valuable information regarding the prevalence of Leishmania in wild carnivores in Asturias and its geographic distribution in the region: an average prevalence of 33% for wolves and an overall prevalence of 40% for all the wild carnivores studied were reported, with a widespread presence of the parasite in the region and an apparent increase in its prevalence in wolves during the last decade. This suggests the usefulness of the wolf as a sentinel species for the detection and study of Leishmania in the field and confirms the value of wildlife sanitary surveillance programs for the detection and monitoring of hitherto disregarded diseases that affect domestic animals and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite that in Europe is genetically characterized by three main clonal genotypes, with a lesser prevalence of atypical patterns. Data on the genotypes of T. gondii circulating both in wildlife and livestock in Northern Italy are scarce. In the present study skeletal muscle samples of cattle ( Bos taurus ), swine ( Sus scrofa domesticus ), fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) and wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) were genotyped by using a nested PCR of 6 loci (alt.SAG2, GRA6, 5′SAG2, BTUB, C22-8 and SAG1) and in silico RFLP. High prevalence of genotype I and non-canonical genotypes were observed in this study, with some differences in the population structure of the parasite between livestock and wildlife. Genetic variability of T. gondii in Europe could be more variable than previously thought, with possible implication for public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alpine marmots Marmota marmota occupy a narrow altitudinal niche within high elevation alpine environments. For animals living at such high elevations where resources are limited, parasitism represents a potential major cost in life history. Using occupancy models, we tested if marmots living at higher elevation have a reduced risk of being infected with gastro-intestinal helminths, possibly compensating the lower availability of resources (shorter feeding season, longer snow cover and lower temperature) than marmots inhabiting lower elevations. Detection probability of eggs and oncospheres of two gastro-intestinal helminthic parasites, Ascaris laevis and Ctenotaenia marmotae, sampled in marmot feces, was used as a proxy of parasite abundance. As predicted, the models showed a negative relationship between elevation and parasite detectability (i.e. abundance) for both species, while there appeared to be a negative effect of solar radiance only for C. marmotae. Site-occupancy models are used here for the first time to model the constrains of gastrointestinal parasitism on a wild species and the relationship existing between endoparasites and environmental factors in a population of free-living animals. The results of this study suggest the future use of site-occupancy models as a viable tool to account for parasite imperfect detection in eco-parasitological studies, and give useful insights to further investigate the hypothesis of the contribution of parasite infection in constraining the altitudinal niche of Alpine marmots. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine Piroplasmosis (EP) caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi is a disease affecting the health and the international movement of horses. In order to assess prevalence of Piroplasmid infection in the Northwestern part of Italy and to evaluate the associated risk factors, whole blood was collected from 135 horses from 7 different stables across the study area. PCR and sequencing were used to assess prevalence of infection and to identify detected Piroplasms to species level. A total of 23 horses (P = 17.04%; CI95%: 10.70–23.38%) was found to be infected with Piroplasms and T. equi was the most prevalent species, found in 18 animals (P = 13.33%; CI95%: 7.60%–19.07%). Although B. caballi was never detected, the presence of parasites belonging to the genus Babesia was confirmed by sequencing in 5 horses, 3 of which were infected with B. canis (P = 2.22%; CI95% 0.76%–6.33%), and 2 with B. capreoli (P = 1.48%; CI95% 0.41%–5.24%). The natural reservoir hosts of B. canis and B. capreoli are the domestic dog and roe deer Capreolus capreolus respectively. These findings pose attention to the need of considering in future epidemiological and clinical studies, other Apicomplexan species as able to infect horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Piroplasmosis are among the most relevant diseases of domestic animals. Babesia is emerging as cause of tick-borne zoonosis worldwide and free-living animals are reservoir hosts of several zoonotic Babesia species. We investigated the epidemiology of Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. in wild ungulates and carnivores from Northern Italy to determine which of these apicomplexan species circulate in wildlife and their prevalence of infection. Methods PCR amplification of the V4 hyper-variable region of the 18S rDNA of Babesia sp./Theileria sp was carried out on spleen samples of 1036 wild animals: Roe deer Capreolus capreolus (n = 462), Red deer Cervus elaphus (n = 52), Alpine Chamois Rupicapra rupicapra (n = 36), Fallow deer Dama dama (n = 17), Wild boar Sus scrofa (n = 257), Red fox Vulpes vulpes (n = 205) and Wolf Canis lupus (n = 7). Selected positive samples were sequenced to determine the species of amplified Babesia/Theileria DNA. Results Babesia/Theileria DNA was found with a mean prevalence of 9.94% (IC95% 8.27-11.91). The only piroplasms found in carnivores was Theileria annae, which was detected in two foxes (0.98%; IC95% 0.27-3.49). Red deer showed the highest prevalence of infection (44.23%; IC95% 31.6-57.66), followed by Alpine chamois (22.22%; IC95% 11.71-38.08), Roe deer (12.55%; IC95% 9.84-15.89), and Wild boar (4.67%; IC95% 2.69-7.98). Genetic analysis identified Babesia capreoli as the most prevalent piroplasmid found in Alpine chamois, Roe deer and Red deer, followed by Babesia bigemina (found in Roe deer, Red deer and Wild boar), and the zoonotic Babesia venatorum (formerly Babesia sp. EU1) isolated from 2 Roe deer. Piroplasmids of the genus Theileria were identified in Wild boar and Red deer. Conclusions The present study offers novel insights into the role of wildlife in Babesia/Theileria epidemiology, as well as relevant information on genetic variability of piroplasmids infecting wild ungulates and carnivores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious disease affecting all suids and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Since 2007, ASF has spread to more than 30 countries in Europe and Asian regions, and the most recent outbreak has been in mainland Italy (reported on January 2022). When the genotype II of the ASF virus infects a population, a mortality rate close to 90% is usually reported. This drop in wild boar abundance produces a cascade effect in the entire ecosystem. In this context, effective monitoring tools for deriving management parameters are a priority aspect, and the utility of camera trapping could have been overlooked. Here, sampling the infected area in north Italy, we showed the utility of camera traps in the context of ASF infection. Specifically, we used 43 camera traps randomly distributed to (i) estimate movement parameters and population density of wild boar, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and wolf (Canis lupus); (ii) quantify wild boar recruitment; and (iii) assess whether the human restriction rules are being met. On the first spring after the outbreak detection, our results for wild boar indicated a density of 0.27 ind·km−2 ± 0.11 (standard error, SE), a daily activity level of 0.49 ± 0.07 (i.e., 11.76 h·day−1), a daily distance travelled of 9.07 ± 1.80 km·day−1, a litter size of 1.72 piglets·group−1, and a 72% of pregnant females. Despite human outdoor activities being restricted in the infected zone, we recorded human presence in 19 camera traps. The wide range of parameters estimated from the camera trap data, together with some intrinsic and practical advantages of this tool, allows us to conclude that camera traps are well positioned to be a reference approach to monitor populations affected by ASF. The population-specific parameters are of prime importance for optimizing ASF control efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tick‐borne zoonoses are an emerging health issue. The expansion of ticks is mainly driven by climatic changes but also by new approaches to the management of the natural environment, increasing the abundance of vertebrate host species and thus the potential exposure to tick bites for both humans and companion animals. In this context, a holistic approach to studying ticks' ecology is required. In the present work, we shed light on the link between environmental tick abundance (global and specific of Ixodes ricinus nymphs, as the highest zoonotic threat) and the temporal occupancy of wildlife host species retrieved from camera traps (namely, wild ruminants, mesocarnivores and wild boar). We modelled this relationship by integrating abiotic factors relevant to tick survival, such as the vegetation cover and saturation deficit, and estimated the accuracy of prediction. To collect these data, we deployed camera traps in a peri‐urban Natural Park in Northwest Italy to monitor wildlife for 1 whole year while collecting ticks in front of camera traps by dragging transects every 2 weeks. Overall, wildlife temporal occupancy showed an additive impact on tick abundance for species that are preferential hosts (deer and mesocarnivores) and a detractive impact for wild boar, which also presented a lower tick burden, particularly with regard to the tick species collected in the environment (mainly I. ricinus and Haemaphysalis punctata). Accuracy of prediction was higher for I. ricinus nymphs rather than the global model. Temporal fluctuations in the tick population were also highlighted. Wildlife temporal occupancy was not constant and varied between seasons according to feeding habits. In conclusion, we highlighted the utility of camera trap data to investigate tick ecology and acarological risk. This information is crucial in informing monitoring and prevention strategies to decrease the risk of tick bites in humans and thus zoonotic risk of tick‐borne diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Parasites that infect cats include protozoa, helminths and arthropods, many of which are transmissible to humans. Effective control relies on a good knowledge of parasite distribution and the risk factors for infection. The present study was aimed at evaluating the prevalence of major feline parasites in Italy and the risk factors associated with their occurrence. Methods: Over a 12-month study period, feces, hair and ectoparasites from naturally infected cats from feral colonies, shelters and private households were analyzed at 13 study centers across Italy. Samples from these cats (n = 987) were analyzed at all centers using the same diagnostic methods. Prevalence values and risk factors were evaluated statistically for the identification of predictors of risk. Results: The overall prevalence of gastro-intestinal and broncho-pulmonary (BP) nematodes was 35.9% (354/987). Toxocara cati was the most prevalent species (253/987; 25.6%), followed by Ancylostomatidae (98/987; 9.9%). Among BP nematodes, Aelurostrongylus abstrusus was the most common (76/987; 7.7%). Approximately 35.7% (352/987) of the study population was infested by ectoparasites, of which the most common were fleas (29.4%, 290/987), followed by ear mites Otodectes cynotis (9.8%, 97/987). Predictors of risk for parasite infection included age, a predominantly or exclusively outdoor lifestyle, geographic area and lack of antiparasitic treatment. Conclusions: Both ecto- and endoparasites are still common in cats throughout Italy, many of them being of zoonotic concern and vectors of pathogens to humans. Given the presence of parasites throughout the entire study period, year-round treatment should be considered. Furthermore, data confirm the need to protect the human–animal bond using proper endo- and ectoparasiticides to reduce the risk of human infection, in application of the One-Health concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: A decline in European hedgehog populations has been reported in several European countries over the past years. Human activities, along with global warming and infectious diseases, appear to be the main drivers of this phenomenon. The present study aimed to determine the major causes of mortality and the main pathological findings in European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) submitted to postmortem examination at two institutes of veterinary pathology, one located in Italy (Piedmont region) and one in Switzerland (Canton of Zurich). Hedgehogs were found in affected health status in the wild, mostly due to traumatic injury, poor overall condition and respiratory, gastrointestinal or neurological signs. The primary causes of death identified were infectious diseases and traumatic insults. The lungs were the most commonly affected organ, mainly displaying pneumonia, which was significantly associated with the presence of nematodes. These findings should be held in mind when treating the species presented to wildlife rescue centers and highlight the importance of proper education of the public on how to coexist and interact with hedgehog populations inhabiting urban areas. European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) are nocturnal insectivores frequently found in urban areas. In the last decades, their population has declined in various European countries and human activities have emerged as significant contributors to this trend. While the literature has mainly focused on trauma as the major cause of mortality, few authors have considered pathological findings. The present study is based on the results of full post-mortem examinations performed on 162 European hedgehogs in Italy and 109 in Switzerland. Unlike in previous studies, the main cause of mortality was infectious diseases (60.5%), followed by traumatic insults (27.7%). The lungs were the main organ affected, showing mostly lymphoplasmacytic (45.9%), granulomatous (18.1%) or suppurative (8.2%) pneumonia. Nematodes were detected in 57.2% of all lungs and were significantly associated with pneumonia (p-value < 0.001). To our knowledge, this is the first study to report infectious diseases as the main cause of hedgehog death, emphasizing the need for wildlife rescue centers to adopt appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic measures. Further research is necessary to determine the broad range of infectious agents that affect this species and elucidate their interplay with the host. Finally, citizen sensitization should be implemented to promote responsible behaviors that could reduce human-related traumatic events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this systematic review and meta‐analysis was to summarize the available knowledge on the seroprevalence of T. gondii in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe. A computerized literature search of electronic databases (PubMed and CAB abstracts) was performed along with hand searches of library resources for relevant papers, books, abstracts and conference proceedings. A random‐effect model was employed to calculate pooled seroprevalence estimates with 95% confidence intervals, and I2 statistic was used to assess heterogeneity. Further, moderator analysis was performed to evaluate the effect of geographical area on the seroprevalence in roe deer. From a total of 190 studies initially identified, 16 and 8 articles were included for roe deer and red deer, respectively. These comprise 3,913 roe deer and 2,913 red deer from different European countries. The pooled seroprevalence was estimated to be 29% (95% CI: 23%–35%) in roe deer and 15% (95% CI: 10%–20%) in red deer. High heterogeneity was detected in the seroprevalence data within each species. In roe deer, the pooled seroprevalence estimate was significantly different according to geographical area with 40% (95% CI: 31%–49%) in Western Europe, 31% (95% CI: 21%–43%) in Northern Europe, 27% (95% CI: 15%–41%) in Eastern Europe and 21% (95% CI: 14%–28%) in Southern Europe. The present study indicates a moderate exposure to T. gondii in roe deer and red deer in Europe, with very high prevalence in Western Europe. Our results highlight the significant risk associated to the consumption of venison, encouraging proper handling and cooking of game meat to prevent toxoplasmosis in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sarcocystis spp. are protozoan parasites with an obligatory two-host life cycle, with herbivores as intermediate hosts and carnivores as definitive hosts. Cattle are intermediate hosts for several species of Sarcocystis: indeed, in addition to S. cruzi, S. hirsuta and S. hominis, at least four new species were recently identified in bovine muscle: S. bovifelis, S. rommeli, S. bovini and S.heydorni. Since is not possible to unambiguously discriminate between S. hominis and the new species either morphologically or by the analysis of the 18S ribosomial (rRNA) gene, the aim of the present study was to use molecular techniques to discriminate cattle Sarcocystis species, taking advantage of the higher discriminative power of the Cytochrome C Oxidase subunit I mitochondrial (mtDNA COI) gene. Therefore, 119 bovine muscle samples were tested to identify S. hominis-like sarcocystis using a multiplex PCR of the 18S rRNA gene; later, positive samples were tested using a newly designed primer set for the PCR amplification of COI gene. Species identification was achieved by sequencing the amplified products: 16 sequences were confirmed to belong to S. bovifelis, while 12 sequences didn't constitute the best BLAST match of any of the published sequences, allowing to speculate the possible presence of S. hominis. This study confirms the higher discriminatory power of COI mitochondrial gene; besides, our work provides the first report of S. bovifelis in Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The ticks Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus are two of the most important vectors in Europe. Climate niche modelling has been used in many studies to attempt to explain their distribution and to predict changes under a range of climate change scenarios. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of different climate niche modelling approaches to explain the known distribution of I. ricinus and D. reticulatus in Europe. Methods: A series of climate niche models, using different combinations of input data, were constructed and assessed. Species occurrence records obtained from systematic literature searches and Global Biodiversity Information Facility data were thinned to different degrees to remove sampling spatial bias. Four sources of climate data were used: bioclimatic variables, WorldClim, TerraClimate and MODIS satellite-derived data. Eight different model training extents were examined and three modelling frameworks were used: maximum entropy, generalised additive models and random forest models. The results were validated through internal cross-validation, comparison with an external independent dataset and expert opinion. Results: The performance metrics and predictive ability of the different modelling approaches varied significantly within and between each species. Different combinations were better able to define the distribution of each of the two species. However, no single approach was considered fully able to capture the known distribution of the species. When considering the mean of the performance metrics of internal and external validation, 24 models for I. ricinus and 11 models for D. reticulatus of the 96 constructed were considered adequate according to the following criteria: area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve > 0.7; true skill statistic > 0.4; Miller's calibration slope 0.25 above or below 1; Boyce index > 0.9; omission rate < 0.15. Conclusions: This comprehensive analysis suggests that there is no single 'best practice' climate modelling approach to account for the distribution of these tick species. This has important implications for attempts to predict climate-mediated impacts on future tick distribution. It is suggested here that climate variables alone are not sufficient; habitat type, host availability and anthropogenic impacts, not included in current modelling approaches, could contribute to determining tick presence or absence at the local or regional scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife policy makers and managers face challenges in taking decisions and dealing with the complexity of international context, and often operate without informed decision‐making frameworks. This situation evidences the need of a harmonised Europe‐wide wildlife monitoring framework able to sustain coordinated transboundary policy. With a pragmatic approach, here we intend to promote the foundations of a transnational wildlife monitoring framework in Europe, that is not meant to replace but to complement and improve harmonisation of existing monitoring plans. Here we provide a general framework on how to start up national wildlife monitoring programs to obtain comparable, aggregable results at European level. This guidance mainly deals with monitoring of species that are either abundant and managed for hunting or to prevent their impact of whatever nature, or, with species that are rare and protected, though associated with human‐wildlife conflict. In the long term, rather than focusing on one single type of wildlife characteristic or monitoring component, the simultaneous monitoring of multiple components (ecological including populational, epidemiological or sociological) is an appropriate strategy to assess change and deliver integral evidence of the underlying reasons for observed changes (holistic approach). We finally raise a basic proposal indicating the main requirements to set up national wildlife monitoring programs that could be harmonisable at European level, which is based on progressive steps. The essential population and distribution data to be collected in a first instance are (i) hunting statistics, (ii) density data (relative abundance can be used for certain species and habitats) over an observatory network, and (iii) occurrence (presence/absence) data. There are different ways of integrating monitoring programs into a harmonised system. If data collected in the frame of monitoring programs are shared, ad hoc questions could be answered and coordinated wildlife management could be proactively developed, yielding reliable trends that account for factors that disregard international borders. We advocate for an integrated platform for collecting, managing, and sharing wildlife monitoring data across Europe, ensuring standardisation and consistency in the data collected by users while addressing confidentiality and secure data management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this report is modelling the occurrence for carnivores at the European scale and to compare the output of occurrence with observed hunting yield (HY) density models for red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and badger (Meles meles). Random Forest function was used for modelling occurrence of species. Occurrences available from the past 30 years (1990‐2020), and HY data (period 2012‐2021) from records submitted to ENETWILD were considered for modelling. Like previous models based on HY for ungulates, the response variable was the maximum number of carnivores hunted in that period divided by the area in km2 of the corresponding administrative unit (HY density). Models based on HY were statistically downscaled to make predictions to 10x10 km2. Occurrence data models indicated a good predictive performance for most species, showing that the model framework proposed for ungulates can also be applied for carnivores. Realistic distribution maps of carnivore species were achieved under this framework, except for those ones which are expanding their range, the golden jackal (Canis aureus), or those considered alien species, raccoon (Procyon lotor) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides); or those having a very limited distribution as the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) or the steppe polecat (Mustela eversmanii): in those cases the obtained models were underestimating their suitability in Europe. Suitability has potential to be used as a proxy for abundance of red fox and badger. Validation of suitability on HY suggested the potential to be used as a proxy for abundance of red fox and badger but depending on each species. The calibration plots for HY models showed a good and linear predictive performance for fox and badger as well as an expected pattern of abundance of species, according to the data. However, differences in type of hunting and regulations in game carnivores between countries must be playing an important role in the patterns obtained. We conclude that (i) the framework developed for modelling ungulates distribution generally well fit to carnivores species, (ii) the predicted suitability were realistic for all carnivores, but alien invasive species, limited distributed species and species expanding its range, and (iii) HY model projections displayed good abundance patterns for red fox and badger, showing that the frameworks proposed for wild ungulates were a good approximation for modelling the distribution of carnivores HY. As a future step, we need to explore how to improve the results when the unavailability of hunting activity for some species limits the extrapolation to other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Zoonotic Visceral Leishmaniasis (ZVL) is a vector-borne disease affecting humans and other mammals and caused by the protozoan parasite Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum (syn. L. chagasi), belonging to the L. donovani complex. The regions in Northern Argentina (above 32 °S) are its southern distribution limit in South America. Results: We detected Leishmania sp. DNA (most likely belonging to the L. donovani complex) in 37.5 % of 32 grey foxes (Pseudalopex griseus) captured in Argentinean Patagonia (48°S and 50°S). Eleven monosexual pools of Amblyomma tigrinum ticks from eight different foxes (six grey foxes and two culpeo foxes P. culpaeus) were also positive. The southernmost known distribution limit for L. infantum, and the southernmost reported capture of a phlebotominae, had previously been 2000 and 750 km north of our study area, respectively. Conclusions: This finding is significant because it markedly extends the distribution area of leishmaniasis; supports the existence of a sylvatic cycle in the absence of dogs; and has implications in transmission, indicating that either sand fly distribution is broader than currently thought or non-sand fly Leishmania maintenance is possible. Additional molecular, parasitological, epidemiological and entomological studies are still needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A science‐based participatory process guided by EFSA identified 10 priority zoonotic pathogens for future One Health surveillance in Europe: highly pathogenic avian influenza, swine influenza, West Nile disease, tick‐borne‐encephalitis, echinococcosis, Crimean Congo Haemorrhagic Fever, hepatitis E, Lyme disease, Q‐fever, Rift Valley fever. The main aim of this report is to formulate recommendations and technical specifications for sustainable coordinated One health surveillance for early detection of these zoonotic pathogens where wildlife is implicated. For this purpose: (i) first, we reviewed the cornerstones of integrated wildlife monitoring that are applicable to zoonotic disease surveillance in wildlife under OH surveillance in the EU; (ii) we analysed the characteristics of the main wildlife groups and the selected pathogens relevant to surveillance aimed at early detection, and integrated with other health compartments; (iii) we proposed general recommendations for the first steps of sustainable wildlife zoonotic disease surveillance in the EU, and (iv) specific recommendations of surveillance aimed at risk based early detection of pathogens in the main wild species groups. We finally proposed (iv) a framework for integrating animal disease surveillance components (wildlife, domestic, environment) for early detection under OH approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A small proportion of disease surveillance programs target environment compartment, and in the EU these are restricted to few countries. The present report is composed of two literature reviews (i) on the main existing structures and systematic/academic initiatives for surveillance in the EU for zoonoses in the environment, and (ii) on the methods for pathogen surveillance in the environment. Concerning (i), it is noteworthy that the most frequently reported objective was to evaluate control and eradication strategies and following trends of zoonosis. However, detecting new pathogens or unusual epidemiological events were scarcely reported as objectives, as well as demonstrating freedom from a particular pathogen, despite the big potential that environmental sampling and testing techniques have recently demonstrated for these purposes. Few of the pathogens prioritised by EFSA were represented in this literature review, indicating the potential of environmental techniques to be applied to a larger extent to detect relevant transboundary and (re)emergent zoonoses. The preferred environmental sample was water, followed by biological material (included faecal material) and vectors (mosquitoes). To a much lesser extent, soil, and other matrices were used. Regarding (ii) the pathogen detection and identification methods were divided into: conventional (culture and biochemistry‐based, and immunology‐based); molecular methods (nucleic acid‐based methods); biosensor‐based (new) and others. A large percentage of available assays for the detection and surveillance of pathogens in the environment focuses on hazards that are not among those pre‐selected by EFSA. Therefore, there is a need for development of new, untested, methods for surveillance of listed pathogens of higher epidemiological importance. Less disturbed areas, natural and wild environments are less covered by environmental sampling techniques than urban and farm environments and should therefore receive higher attention since they may hold undiscovered and potentially epidemiologically significant hazards and hosts. In general, molecular methods, namely the nucleic‐acid based methods, are the ones more commonly and widely used for pathogen detection in environmental samples, and can be developed for virtually any organism, given a sufficient effort to identify specific DNA/RNA sequences unique to the target organism. The usefulness and appropriateness of different environmental matrices for detecting specific pathogens or for specific purposes are discussed and recommendations are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present report describes and maps the main existing structures and systematic initiatives and academic activities for surveillance in the EU for transboundary, emerging and re‐emerging zoonoses in domestic animals, wildlife, and the environment, developed by the different sectors, namely human, domestic animal, wildlife and environmental, under One Health approach. This is essential to provide scientific and technical advice and improve future schemes of surveillance. A questionnaire was compiled by MSs and the information collected was complemented by literature reviews about (i) the main existing structures and systematic initiatives or activities, and (ii) academic activities for surveillance in the EU for zoonoses in domestic animals and wildlife. We focused on a 50 zoonotic diseases that were pre‐selected for the prioritisation exercise by the One Health working group of EFSA. In total, 21 countries returned the questionnaire. The analysis of zoonotic disease surveillance evidenced that high fragmentation of surveillance programmes occurs in Europe and therefore the main challenge to integrate One Health surveillance is to integrate different surveillance programmes and One Health sectors to progress towards multi‐host and multi‐sector surveillance programmes. When different sectors oversee the coordination of surveillance programmes, the subsequent integration over the different phases of surveillance is enhanced. A structured approach is needed to determine priorities for surveillance and the approach to be used in European surveillance schemes to achieve a higher benefit‐cost ratio with existing or reduced resources. The literature review indicated potential relevance of the hunting sector to participate in surveillance programmes and a bias towards research in vector‐borne pathogens and vectors by the academia; experience that can be used to build One health surveillance. Recommendations are provided for further implementation of One health surveillance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

EFSA has been asked by the EU Commission to assess the prioritization of cross‐border pathogens that threaten the Union to be used in setting up a coordinated surveillance system under the One Health approach. A list of 50 pathogen has been considered in a first stage by the Working Group of EFSA. Under this approach, the criteria to be applied for prioritization of pathogens in further steps should consider that emerging infectious diseases have arisen from or been identified in wildlife, with health implications for humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. The identified infectious diseases pose a threat to wildlife populations and biodiversity and are perceived by the society as real risks to wildlife conservation. Here we review the endangered wildlife hosts in Europe that may be affected by the selected pathogens. We elaborated a list of potential endangered wildlife hosts distributed in Europe for each pathogen, which were sortied following their taxonomic classification. Hosts species were classified (as a function of their conservation status) as Near Threatened (NT), Vulnerable (BVU), Endangered (EN) and Critically Endangered (CE) based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Their endemicity status (to EU and to Europe, respectively) was also indicated. To consider a species as potential hosts, a literature review was performed. We detailed the taxonomic level at which each pathogen has been reported (from Order decreasingly to Species) so as the reporting of clinical signs, paying attention also to reports in the wild, but also in zoological collections. A complete table and data sources are presented. Pathogen specific cards to illustrate the main findings in relation to threatened wildlife host species are disseminated to experts on different disciplines to raise awareness about the relevance of wildlife conservation under the One Health approach and to promote the integration of this approach into management of human‐wildlife conflicts and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this report is i) to model the occurrence and hunting yield (HY) density of wild ungulates not only for widely distributed species in Europe, but also for those ones which have a constrained distribution and ii) to compare the output of occurrence with observed HY. Random Forest function was used for modelling occurrence of species. We used occurrence data available from the past 30 years, and HY data (period 2015‐2020) from records collected by ENETWILD. Like previous models based on HY, the response variable was the maximum number of wild ruminants annually hunted in 2015‐2020 hunting seasons divided by the area (km2) of the corresponding administrative unit (HY density). Models based on HY were statistically downscaled to make predictions to 10x10km squares. Occurrence data models indicated a good predictive performance for most species, showing that the model framework proposed have improved results in comparison to previous models. The transferability of models into new regions was limited by the exposure of species to environmental conditions. As for HY models, the calibration plots showed a good and linear predictive performance for widely distributed species, as well as constrained distributed species. Overall, our results were consistent with the expected abundance distribution of widely distributed species. The removal of zeros on the validation datasets affected the calibration plots of all regions, showing a better predictive performance when zeros were removed for widely distribution species, but the opposite was evidenced for species with limited distributions. We conclude that (i) the importance of co‐correlation variables when variable importance is inferenced from random forest model results, (ii) manipulation presence and absence locations could yield further improvement in occurrence model outputs, and (iii) HY model projections displayed good abundance patterns for most of species, showing that the three frameworks proposed were a good approximation for modelling the distribution of wild ungulates HY, although it should be explored how to improve the results when distribution is patchy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU‐Commission is setting up a coordinated surveillance system under the One Health approach for cross‐border pathogens that threaten the Union, for which EFSA is assessing the prioritization of pathogens to be targeted by surveillance. To support in prioritizing pathogens, this report reviews the literature on existing frameworks, describes the criteria to be considered for prioritization and compares approaches used in the reviewed studies (from year 2000 onwards). The search was undertaken across various biomedical and scientific literature databases and were selected using inclusion criteria to filter references presenting prioritization criteria/tool/methods applicable to transmissible and zoonotic diseases. A data standardised model was used to extract key information to characterise disease prioritization frameworks. One‐thousand one‐hundred and thirty‐eight studies were selected for inclusion in this review, which were reduced to 80 items once the inclusion and exclusion criteria had been applied, for which, statistics are presented. Most of these studies used one of six methodologies to prioritise disease risks: bibliometric index, the Delphi technique, multi‐criteria decision analysis (MCDA), qualitative algorithms, questionnaires, and multi‐dimensional matrix. Overall, the review of referenced papers indicated that, regardless of the selected method, (i) it is essential that when using experts the criteria reflects the aims of the risk‐ranking exercise, (ii) a large and multi‐disciplinary panel can further mitigate subjectivity and professional bias, (iii) all relevant stakeholders should be included in the process, (iv) weighing of criteria to rank pathogens should ideally be done at a separate time or by a separate group to reduce bias, and (v) it should be evaluated from the very beginning if the project team has the necessary expertise or if outsourcing is required for a given method. Indications are given for the methods to prioritise pathogens, remarking that, for a comprehensive risk ranking including novel, emerging and established infections, ECDC recommends MCDA or Delphi methods (which are here descriptively compared), which are comprehensive methods for risk ranking. We recommend a further detailed evaluation (as recommended by ECDC) of listed references based on their validity and reliability and including grey literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a previous report, ENETWILD proposed a generic model framework to predict habitat suitability and likely occurrence for wild ruminant species using opportunistic presence data (occurrence records for wild ungulate species from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility). In this report, for the first time, we develop models based on hunting yield data (HY) for the most widely distributed wild ruminant species in Europe: roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). We also update models based on occurrence (roe deer, red deer, fallow deer (Dama dama), European moose (Alces alces) and muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), evaluate the performance of both approaches, and compare outputs. As for HY models, we could not conduct one model per bioregion as there are not enough data for modelling in some bioregions, and therefore, we calibrated a unique model, including eco‐geographical variables as predictors. The calibration plots for HY models showed a good predictive performance for red deer in the Eastern bioregion and roe deer at Eastern and Western. The abundance distribution pattern of red deer HY was widely scattered over all Europe, as expected for a widely distributed species which shows high ecological plasticity, and roe deer presented the highest abundance in Atlantic and Eastern Europe, progressively decreasing towards Northern Mediterranean bioregions. Overall, calibration plot did not perform well in the Northern region, which could be due to the low availability of data for both species in this bioregion. As for occurrence data models, performances using our revised approach for most species showed similarly moderate predictive accuracy. To sum, HY model projections showed good patterns where good quality data was provided, while worst predictions are found in neighbouring countries/bioregions. Two approximations to be explored for next models are: (i) modelling HY per bioregion providing more flexibility to the models, even if data projection is done at lower resolution scales, and (ii), modelling HY by accounting the fact that certain countries provide most data, to avoid that these areas overinform the model. As for occurrence data model, next steps for data acquisition and occurrence data modelling are: (i) review target group definitions for each species, (ii) revise definitions of "true" absence for model testing for better parity with fitting, and (iii) either replace principal component analysis with variance inflation factor analysis to remove co‐correlates and model calibration for variable selection or develop post‐model analysis to recover environmental dependencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the previous ENETWILD model, the predicted patterns of wild boar abundance based on hunting yield data reached an acceptable reliability when the model was downscaled to higher spatial resolution. This new approach, based on the modelling of hunting yield densities instead of hunting yield counts and the assessment of spatial autocorrelation, was only applied with simulated data and with data from two regions at hunting ground level, the smallest spatial resolution. In this report, (1) we evaluate whether this approach can correct the overpredictions for high‐resolution predicted patterns when raw data are present at a different spatial resolution (i.e. the European region). For this purpose, hunting yield densities were incorporated as response variable (one model per bioregion) and predictions reliability at 10x10km and 2x2km spatial resolution were assessed. Internal validations and comparisons with the previous two‐step model carried out at European scale were addressed, as well as an evaluation with external data at the same scale at country level. The model presented certain overprediction (much less than the previous model) of the total hunting bags reported per country, although a good correlation in terms of values and linearity between observed and predicted values was achieved. Secondly (2), a generic model framework to predict habitat suitability and likely occurrence for wildlife species using opportunistic presence data was proposed (occurrence records for wild ungulate species from the past 20 years exclusively from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility extracted on 9/12/2020). Across all wild ungulate species (elk (Alces alces), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), dam deer (Dama dama), muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), wild boar (Sus scrofa)) the model framework performs well. For those species where area under the curve is below 0.7 we note lower accuracy in predicting absences, which requires further investigation to understand the root cause; whether a result of underlying assumptions regarding the testing data or due to the model performance itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Invasive rats and field mice were captured under the project RESTO CON LIFE "Island conservation in Tuscany, restoring habitat not only for birds", aiming to improve habitats preservation on the Italian islands of Pianosa, Elba, Montecristo, and Giannutri. Bartonella henselae DNA was detected in one captured animal. This is the first report of the presence of B. henselae DNA in rodents in Italy. B. henselae is the causative agent of cat scratch disease, and the detection of this bacterium in rodents might have public health implications. Wild rodents are reservoirs of several Bartonella species that cause human bartonellosis. The aim of this study was to assess the presence of Bartonella spp. DNA in wild rodents in Pianosa island, Italy. Rats (Rattus spp.; n = 15) and field mice (Apodemus spp.; n = 16) were captured and spleen DNA tested for the presence of Bartonella spp. by means of an initial screening using a qPCR amplifying a short segment of the 16S-23S rRNA gene intergenic transcribed spacer region (ITS, ~200 bp) followed by conventional PCR amplification of a longer ITS fragment (~600 bp) and of a citrate synthase (gltA, ~340 bp) gene segment. A total of 25 spleen DNA samples obtained from 31 rodent carcasses (81%) yielded positive qPCR results. Bartonella genus was confirmed by amplicon sequencing. By conventional PCR, eight out of 25 samples (32%) yielded bands on gels consistent with ITS segment, and 6/25 (24%) yielded bands consistent with the gltA locus. Amplicon sequencing identified B. henselae and B. coopersplainsensis in 1/25 (4%), and 4/25 (16%) samples, respectively. Moreover, 5/25 (20%) of Bartonella spp. positive samples showed gltA sequences with about 97% identity to B. grahamii. These results provide support to recently published observations suggesting that B. henselae circulates in wild rodent populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A parasite community is usually well adapted and specific to the host species they co-evolved with. Although exotic pathogens infecting autochthonous species have been documented, the infection of an alien species with native parasites is rare in lagomorphs. Trichostrongylus retortaeformis is a nematode parasite infecting the small intestine of domestic and wild lagomorphs in Europe. Methods: Thirty-two Eastern cottontails from a naturalized population in Italy were processed to describe the gastrointestinal parasite community. Results and discussions: T. retortaeformis is reported for the first time in the Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus introduced to Europe. The Eastern cottontail is an invasive lagomorph, living in sympatry with the autochthonous European brown hare in certain areas of Italy. This study provides new insights into the dynamics of parasite communities of native and alien lagomorph species in sympatric areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to define the spatial interface between wild boar and domestic pigs in Europe, the ENETWILD consortium (www.enetwild.com) described in a preliminary report the different sources of data for domestic pigs at European scale, and developed a preliminary risk map of possible spatial interaction between both groups. This modelexplored and assessed the use of pig distribution data from Gridded Livestock of the Worlddatabase (GLW), FAO. However, in some specific countries used as cases, the GLW predictions did not reliably represent the pig abundance distribution within countries. The currently available census data of livestock at the European Union level (Eurostat) is limited to the spatial resolution at NUTS2. While Eurostat ensures that data can be potentially comparable,there is still needed to resolve definition issues regarding better spatial resolution (level of aggregation of information) and the pig production systems. In this context, the objectives of this report are (i) assessing the spatial interface between pigs and wild boar over Europe using the best quality data available (Eurostat data and ENETWILD spatial models). We(ii) secondly assessed the interface at higher spatial resolution, distinguishing pig production types in countries where data was available. Based on comparisons at different scales and quality of data, we propose future steps in both data collection and modelling approach.Precisespatial resolution of pig data is not available at European level yet, and the discrimination of extensive vs. intensive farms, backyards vs. commercial; outdoor vs. indoor, is essential to quantify and perform risk analyses separatelyfor each production system and/or considering this relevant source of variation in risk at the interface. The development of a framework to collect harmonised and standardised data at European scale athigher resolution is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ENETWILD consortium has developed methodologies for modelling wild boar abundance distribution based on hunting yield (HY) data. Although the methodologies reached an acceptable reliability, when models were downscaled to higher spatial resolution the predictions of absolute numbers of hunted animals tended to overprediction. Some important issues such as HY‐surface relationship and the spatial autocorrelation of HY data or the accuracy of downscaled predictions were not fully addressed yet due to the complexity of dealing with huge datasets at a European scale. In this report we (i) explored the use of hunted wild boar densities (numbers of hunted wild boar relative to surface) instead of raw counts (numbers of hunted animals) as response variable, and (ii) introduced intrinsic Conditional Auto‐Regressive models (iCAR) taking into account spatial autocorrelation. Using simulations and actual wild boar data, these new actions were aimed to produce high resolution predictions (2x2 km grid) with higher accuracy. We assessed model fitting in two different regions in Europe with high quality resolution HY data: Aragón autonomous region (North East Spain, belonging to South Bioregion as defined by ENETWILD) and the whole country of Slovenia (East Bioregion). We found that the marked overprediction, as observed in previous reports when models were downscaled, was now controlled by using hunted wild boar densities as response variable. Additionally, higher accuracy in model predictions was reached when iCAR approach was used to control for spatial autocorrelation. This high accuracy was maintained even when high resolution predictions were aggregated and compared to actual wild boar HY. These approaches should be considered in future models and represent an important step forward to model the distribution of wild boar abundance and other wildlife at high resolution over Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ENETWILD consortium updated in August 2019 suitability maps of wild boar occurrence and relative abundance based on hunting statistics, providing predictions at 10x10 km. External validation of this relative abundance model and a new downscaling on a 2x2 km grid was addressed in the ENETWILD report in January 2020. In this report, we update and incorporate additional data to provide new maps of wild boar suitability with a resolution of 2x2 km, obtained from a presence‐only algorithm, and a new model based on hunting yield data for MS and neighbouring countries. Hunting yield‐based modelling provides further novelties in two ways: new predictor variables and new (two) modelling approaches, i.e. smooth bioregion modelling and two‐step independent bioregion modelling). Internal validations and comparisons among previous and new suitability and hunting yield models were also addressed, as well as external evaluation of the best new approach at European scale (at country level). The suitability map showed a good agreement with the expert‐derived species range published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. New models of relative abundance performed in general better than the previous one according to internal validations, concretely the two‐step independent bioregion approach gives the best validation scores. This approach solved the abrupt changes in predictions between bioregion boundaries. As with the previous model, the external evaluation of the new model based on hunting yield presented certain over‐prediction of the total hunting bags reported per country, although a high linearity between observed and predicted values was achieved. Previous and new hunting yield model predictions showed disagreements particularly in North and East regions, and other scattered areas in South and West, being areas in which the new model provides more reliable predictions. Hunting yield model outputs showed a relevant improvement in smoothing transitions between bioregions due to the flexibility provided by the new approach. Our analysis showed only partial agreement between suitability and relative abundance models, and reasons for these differences are discussed in this report. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ENETWILD consortium implementedtheEFSA‐funded project "Wildlife: collecting and sharing data on wildlife populations, transmitting animal diseases agents", whose main objective is to collect wild boardensity, hunting and occurrence dataand model species geographical distribution and abundance throughout Europe.This subject is of particular concern due to the vastspread of African swine fever (ASF). In September 2019,the ENETWILD consortiumorganised aworkshop in Croatia for 27game biologists, animal health professionals, and experts from national huntingand forest authorities from 14 countriesfrom South East Europe.The overall objectives of the workshop were to present milestones and achievements of the ENETWILD project,to reviewthe framework forwild boar data collection and harmonization (hunting, density and occurrence data) of thedifferent countries,as well as to review scientificmethods for determiningwild boar abundance and density, and to train oncamera trapping and the random encounter method (REM).It was agreed thathunting bag data are currently the main source of information, although not always collected within a harmonized framework and rarely accompanied by a record of the hunting effort. Instead, wild boar abundance and densityestimates available in SouthEast Europe are unreliable because most of them are not based on scientific methods. Hence, there is a need to implement a novel method for determining wild boar abundance and densitythat uses hunting bag statistics including measures of hunting effort and efficiency during collective drive hunts, compared against density values calculated using camera trapping and the random encounter method (REM). Several collaborators have declared their willingness to participate in such pilot studies, and all agreed in improving data collection, including by means of citizen science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective - To describe the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) for the detection of active renal hemorrhage in a dog with spontaneous kidney rupture resulting in hemoperitoneum. Case summary - A 9-month-old, sexually intact male Boxer dog presented for acute collapse, abdominal pain, and tachycardia. Physical examination findings were consistent with hypovolemia and acute abdomen. B-mode ultrasonography revealed peritoneal effusion and a right kidney mass. Subsequently, a CEUS study was performed on the right kidney, which demonstrated active hemorrhage from that kidney resulting in both hemoretroperitoneum and hemoperitoneum. At exploratory surgery, ultrasonographic findings were confirmed and a right nephrectomy was performed. Histopathology demonstrated severe parenchymal alterations along with the presence of nematode larvae. Fecal and urine testing for the presence of parasitic ova were negative. Identification of the larvae was inconclusive. At 30 days postoperatively, repeat B-mode ultrasound and clinicopathologic testing was unremarkable. The dog was alive at 1 year postsurgery with no ill effects. New or Unique Information Provided - To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of CEUS for the detection of active hemorrhage from a kidney resulting in hemoretroperitoneum and hemoperitoneum in a dog. Although rare, the finding of nematode larvae within the renal parenchyma may have been the cause of kidney rupture. Importantly, surgical removal of the kidney was curative. Benign processes causing kidney rupture such as parasitic infestation should be considered in the working diagnosis as related to geographical location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade an increase of the number of red foxes in anthropized habitats across European countries, including Italy, has been observed. This pones implications in terms of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic animals; in fact, there are evidences of the role of foxes as reservoirs and amplifiers of a broad spectrum of parasites infecting pets. The present study evaluated the prevalence of Eucoleus boehmi , an emerging extra-intestinal nematodes of the Capillariinae subfamily, in red foxes. The nasal passages and sinuses of 179 red foxes culled from several areas of northern and central Italy were inspected and the mucosal surfaces were scrapped and examined for adult nematodes and eggs, microscopically and genetically identified. Overall 55 foxes (30.7%) were found to be infected with E. boehmi , i.e. 27 on inspection of the nasal passages and sinuses and 28 on mucosal flush and scraping. The occurrence of E. boehmi was significantly ( p < 0.05) correlated to the sampling location, the age and gender of the animals examined; the higher rates of prevalence were observed in animals culled in Piedmont (43.3%) and in female (60.6%) and adult (38.1%) subjects. A total of 184 adult parasites were recovered, with a mean intensity of infection of 3.34, and a more frequent localization of E. boehmi in the nasal passages rather than in the sinuses. A significant ( p < 0.05) relationship was found between the parasite burden and body condition and age of the animals; the intensity of infection was significantly higher in juveniles (mean: 6.3 specimens) and in animals showing poor fox body condition (mean: 7.8 specimens). These results show that E. boehmi is highly prevalent in the red fox populations of certain areas of Italy. Epidemiological implications are discussed, with a special focus on the role that this wild canid may have in the increasing transmission of nasal eucoleosis to domestic dogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect almost all warm blooded animals. In Europe, the domestic cat is the main definitive host. Worldwide, 6 billion people are infected with this parasite. The goal of our research is to evaluate the prevalence of T. gondii infection in wild animals from a previously unsampled area in Northern Italy where 0.1% of women seroconvert during pregnancy each year. Methods We sampled and tested skeletal muscle and central nervous system tissue of 355 wild animals by PCR (n = 121 roe deer Capreolus capreolus, n = 105 wild boar Sus scrofa, n = 94 red fox Vulpes vulpes, n = 22 alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra, n = 13 red deer Cervus elaphus). Results The overall prevalence of infection with T. gondii was 10.99% (confidence interval (CI) 95% 8.14%-14.67%). A higher rate of infection was recorded in carnivores and omnivores (red fox 20.21%, CI 95% 13.34%-29.43%; wild boar 16.19%, CI 95% 10.36%-24.41%) compared to ruminants (2.48%, CI 95% 0.85%-7.04% in roe deer; 0.00%, CI 95% 0.00%-22.81% in red deer, and 0.00% alpine chamois (CI 95% 0.00%-14.87%) confirming the importance of tissue cysts in transmitting infection. Conclusions The relatively high prevalence of T. gondii DNA in highly consumed game species (wild boar and roe deer) gives valuable insights into T. gondii epidemiology and may contribute to improve prevention and control of foodborne toxoplasmosis in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite that is able to infect almost all warm blooded animals. In Europe, the domestic cat is the main definitive host. Worldwide, 6 billion people are infected with this parasite. The goal of our research is to evaluate the prevalence of T. gondii infection in wild animals from a previously unsampled area in Northern Italy where 0.1% of women seroconvert during pregnancy each year. Methods: We sampled and tested skeletal muscle and central nervous system tissue of 355 wild animals by PCR (n = 121 roe deer Capreolus capreolus, n = 105 wild boar Sus scrofa, n = 94 red fox Vulpes vulpes, n = 22 alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra, n = 13 red deer Cervus elaphus). Results: The overall prevalence of infection with T. gondii was 10.99% (confidence interval (CI) 95% 8.14%-14.67%). A higher rate of infection was recorded in carnivores and omnivores (red fox 20.21%, CI 95% 13.34%-29.43%; wild boar 16.19%, CI 95% 10.36%-24.41%) compared to ruminants (2.48%, CI 95% 0.85%-7.04% in roe deer; 0.00%, CI 95% 0.00%-22.81% in red deer, and 0.00% alpine chamois (CI 95% 0.00%-14.87%) confirming the importance of tissue cysts in transmitting infection. Conclusions: The relatively high prevalence of T. gondii DNA in highly consumed game species (wild boar and roe deer) gives valuable insights into T. gondii epidemiology and may contribute to improve prevention and control of foodborne toxoplasmosis in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ticks are hematophagous parasites that can transmit a variety of human pathogens, and their life cycle is dependent on several climatic factors for development and survival. We conducted a study in Piedmont and Aosta Valley, Italy, between 2009 and 2018. The study matched human sample serologies for Borrelia spp. with publicly available climatic and meteorological data. A total of 12,928 serological immunofluorescence assays (IFA) and Western blot (WB) tests were analysed. The median number of IFA and WB tests per year was 1236 (range 700–1997), with the highest demand in autumn 2018 (N = 289). In the study period, positive WB showed an increasing trend, peaking in 2018 for both IgM (N = 97) and IgG (N = 61). These results were consistent with a regional climatic variation trending towards an increase in both temperature and humidity. Our results suggest that coupling data from epidemiology and the environment, and the use of a "one health" approach, may provide a powerful tool in understanding disease transmission and strengthen collaboration between specialists in the era of climate instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Hermetia illucens (HI) and Tenebriomolitor (TM) are considered innovative protein sources in animal nutrition. Recently, it has been discovered that low doses of insect meal can also act as gut prebiotics, providing an alternative to antibiotics. This is extremely relevant to the enhancement of gut health, specifically the absence, avoidance and prevention of gastrointestinal diseases in order to maintain animal welfare, health and performance. Insect meals have been proven to be effective in modulating gut morphometry, mucin composition and microbiota. However, no studies are available on the effects of live insect larvae. For these reasons, this study describes for the first time the effects of low doses of HI and TM live larvae as environmental enrichment on chicken mucin expression, local immune response and microbiota composition. The results herein obtained demonstrated that live insect larvae administered based on 5% of the expected daily feed intake did not impair mucin expression or local cytokine production. Furthermore, it seemed to produce a slight improvement of the caecal microbiota by enhancing a minor fraction of potentially beneficial taxa able to produce short chain fatty acids as an important source of energy for the enterocytes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Hermetia illucens (HI) and Tenebrio molitor (TM) live larvae as environmental enrichment on the mucin composition, local immune response and microbiota of broilers. A total of 180 four-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments (six replicates/treatment; ten animals/replicate): (i) control (C); (ii) C+HI; (iii) C+TM. Live larvae were distributed based on 5% of the expected daily feed intake. At slaughter (39 days of age), samples of duodenum, jejunum and ileum (twelve animals/diet) were submitted to mucin histochemical evaluation. Expression of MUC-2 and cytokines was evaluated by rt-qPCR in jejunum. Mucin staining intensity was not influenced by diet (p > 0.05); however, this varied depending on the intestinal segment (p < 0.001). No significant differences were recorded for IL-4, IL-6 TNF-α, MUC-2 and INF-γ gene expression in jejunum, while IL-2 was lower in the TM group compared to HI and C (p = 0.044). Caecal microbiota showed higher abundance of Clostridium, Saccharibacteria and Victivallaceae in the HI group, while Collinsella was higher in the TM group. The results suggested that live insect larvae did not impair mucin composition or local immune response, and can slightly improve caecal microbiota by enhancing a minor fraction of short chain fatty acid-producing taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ENETWILD consortium provided in August 2019 a map at 10x10 km resolution for wild boar abundance based on hunting data. The availability of prediction maps at a spatial resolution comparable with the one of the home range of wild boar can be useful for further evaluation of risk of spread of African swine fever (ASF). Therefore, predictionsof abundance on the basis of the wild boar home range are required. The downscaling procedure needs information on what resolution level is being used for predictions (hunting grounds, municipalities and NUTS3). This report presents the validation of previously produced hunting yield maps (10x10 km resolution) and new model projections downscaled at 2x2 km resolution. A new dataset based on hunting bag numbers was used as external data for validation. These data were arranged at two levels: at country level for the European scenario and at NUTS3 level for a scenario in Spain, where the data availability is higher than the rest of Europe in terms of quantity and quality. Very similar geographical patterns of wild boar abundance were obtained when the models were transferred to 2x2 km grid. The downscaled model predictions were aggregated at country and NUTS3 levels and compared against the external dataset. Our study confirmed that both 10x10 km and 2x2 km resolutions were able to detect spatial variation in wild boar hunting bags (high model performance) and to predict the numbers of wild boar hunted with relative precision (moderate model accuracy). Nevertheless, an overestimation of absolute number of hunted wild boar was observed using both resolutions. Reasons for this overestimation are discussed in this report. The linearity between predictions of hunting yield and external dataset was maintained, indicating that hunting yield predictions can be considered as a good proxy of wild boar abundance. Therefore, updated wild boar hunting yield data, collected at the finest spatial resolution as possible, is needed to correctly recalibrate our model at regional level, an in particular in eastern European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hunting statistics can be suitable to determine wild boar density estimates if a calibration with an accepted rigorous method is performed. Here, densities calculated from drive counts during collective drive hunting activities are compared against density values calculated by camera trapping using the random encounter method. For this purpose, we selected 10 study sites in Spain, from North to South representing a diversity of habitats, management and hunting traditions without artificial feeding, plus one study site in Czech Republic where artificial feeding was practiced. Density values estimated from both drive counts and camera trapping were strongly positively correlated (R2=0.84 and 0.87 for linear and non‐linear models, respectively) and showed a good agreement. Drive counts data might be therefore used as a density estimate to calibrate models for estimating density in large areas and potentially, to compare densities among areas. For these purposes, there is still the need to harmonise hunting data collection across Europe to make them usable at a large scale. Our results need to be confirmed across a wider number of European populations to provide valid geographical wild boar density predictions across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In October 2018 the ENETWILD consortium created suitability maps based on available data on wild boar occurrence at 10 km square resolution and initial version of abundance models based on hunting statistics at NUTS3 and NUTS2 resolution, that were statistically downscaled for MSs to 10x10 km grid squares. This report presents updated suitability map for wild boar presence based on additional occurrence data and new algorithms, and new models based on high‐resolution hunting yield data for MSs and neighbouring countries. New environmental variables closely associated with wild boar abundance and distribution were also included. Our results showed no consensus for a single best occurrence model: out of those tested, both Maxent and random forest could be considered the best options depending on the choice of assessment metric. Predictions from these models notably disagreed in eastern Europe where data on wild boar occurrence are limited. Despite agreement among models, predictions in the south appeared over‐predicted, most likely due to a lack of contrasting absence data. Whilst there remain some methodological adjustments which could be tested, substantial improvement in the prediction from occurrence models relies on further collection of wild boar occurrence data in the east and complimentary data on survey effort in the south.The predictive performance of the hunting yield model was high. Although the incorporation of new data at higher spatial resolution markedly improved predictions, such data is still needed in some regions, ideally coupled with hunting effort, which would allow such estimates to be transformed into reliable densities. Comparison between predictions from the occurrence and hunting yield models showed they were statistically associated, but the strength of that relationship was dependent on the type of occurrence model and the bioregion. These findings are compatible with previous interpretations of the occurrence model, and highlight the relevance of obtaining more accurate data, especially from northern and eastern bioregions in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterogeneities in the wild boar data collection frameworks across Europe were analysed using questionnaires to explore comparability of hunting data in the short term and propose a common framework for future collection. Fifty‐seven respondents representing 32 countries covering more than 95% of European territory participated to the questionnaire. The most frequently recorded information in the official statistics included the quantity of animals shot per hunting ground and season (24 countries) and the size of the hunting (management) ground (21 countries). Georeferenced maps for the hunting grounds were collected (total or partial) for 20 countries. The least frequently recorded information was at the level of hunting events. We conclude that (i) sources of hunting statistics providing quantitative information on wild boar (and by extension, for other big game species) are lacking or are not harmonised across Europe, as well as incomplete, dispersed and difficult to compare; (ii) a feasible effort is needed to achieve harmonisation of data in a short time for the most basic statistics at the hunting ground level, and (iii) the coordination of the collection of hunting statistics must be achieved first at national and then at European level. The following is recommended: (i) countries should collect data at hunting ground level; (ii) efforts should be focused on data‐poor countries (e.g. Eastern Europe), and (iii) the data should be collected at the finest spatial and temporal resolution, i.e. at hunting event level. ENETWILD proposes the development of a robust and well‐informed data collection model as the basis for a common data collection framework. The present report identified some countries where, though the potential to share good quality data is present, the data collection promoted by ENETWILD has not succeeded so far (i. e. Eastern Europe). This highlights the need of further strategies to be developed so to encourage and support these countries to share hunting data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The geographical distribution of ticks on companion animals needs to be monitored to develop and plan effective control measures, as suggested by the European Scientific Counsel on Companion Animal Parasites. The aim of this study was to conduct the first Italian national survey of tick distribution on privately owned dogs. Methods: The study was performed over 20 months (February 2016 - September 2017) and involved 153 veterinary practices in 64 different provinces covering 17/20 (85%) Italian regions. Participating practitioners were asked to examine five different dogs per month at random and complete a questionnaire for each dog. Differences in tick infestation associated with: sex, age and hair length (long and short); the dog's habitat (indoor or outdoor/kennel); and the dog's environment (urban or rural/sylvatic) were evaluated. The attachment site of ticks on the dog was also recorded. Acaricide efficacy was evaluated for the subset of dogs for which complete information on product used, date of sampling and date of last ectoparasiticide treatment was available. Results: Of the 3026 dogs examined, 1383 (45.7%) were carrying at least one tick. Overall, 2439 tick samples were collected and a total of 14 tick species identified. Rhipicephalus sanguineus group were the most predominant ticks (63.6%), followed by Ixodes ricinus (30.6%) and I. hexagonus (5.6%). Twenty-four dogs had mixed tick infestations. Long-haired dogs had a higher tick infestation risk as did dogs with outdoor and rural/sylvatic lifestyles. Ticks were located on the head (37.4%), the neck (28.8%), the muzzle (15.5%) and the back (15.3%). A higher prevalence of Rhipicephalus was found in the interdigital spaces (10.8%) compared to Ixodes (0.2%). Finally, ectoparasiticide treatments were found significantly protective against tick infestation, especially orally administered formulations. Conclusions: Privately owned dogs in Italy have a high prevalence (45.7%) of infestation with ixodid ticks and this risk varies by dog phenotype and lifestyle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]